The Role Of Theory In Applied Social Psychology

The Role Of Theory In Applied Social Psychology

The Role of Theory in Applied Social Psychology This is the first of three Audio PowerPoint Lectures in Soc 3332 – Understanding Social Behavior By Dr. Byron K. Hargrove Let’s begin with a quote about theory. In science, a theory is not just a guess. It’s a well-substantiated, well-supported, well-documented explanation for observations. (Baumeister & Bushman, 2017) In this lecture we will review the main e-text chapter points about the role of theory in social psychology and provide additional definition of terms.

“ The key points to remember in your e-text for this week are as follows: #1. To maintain a scientific mindset, we need to hold scientific values, set scientific goals, and follow the five step scientific process in order to empirically discover social truths. #2. The five steps of the scientific process are: (a) observation, (b) theory development using induction, (c) use deduction, (d) move toward hypothesis-testing, and (e) create interventions. Now let’s take a moment to compare and contrast the inductive and deductive approaches in social psychology. Basic Social Psychologists tend to operate using the Deductive Approach (think theory-oriented, or start universal then go specific).

In other words, basic social psychologists begin with a big theory (such as attachment theory) and examine all of the possible small or specific applications to social behaviors (Steg et al., 2008). Applied Social Psychologists tend to operate using the Inductive Approach (think problem-oriented, or start small then generate general principles). In other words, Applied Social Psychologists begin with social problem and then examine how multiple theories can be used to explain a social phenomenon (such as the #MeToo movement and Cases of sexual misconduct). (Steg et al., 2008). Now let’s return to the e-text chapter summary countdown of key points. #3. Basic Social Psychologists theories provide three main functions – Organization, Hypothesis-Testing, and a Guide for Interventions.

So a Good Theory organizes principles and hypotheses, leads to testable hypotheses, and leads to clear ways to intervene on social problems. #4. All Theories can be evaluated along four characteristics: Scope, Range, Testability, and Parsimony. You will be asked to review the theories introduced in your e-text using these characteristics. Let’s examine the four evaluation characteristics of theories more closely. #5. First, let’s focus on the SCOPE of a theory.

Ask yourself, based on what you were able to research on the Theory, how many social thoughts, feelings, or behaviors does this theory attempt to explain? Is this a major, mid-level, or minor level Theory? Is the Theory broad in scope or delimited to one aspect of a social phenomenon? #6. A second characteristic is the RANGE of a Theory. In other words, do the theoretical predictions work for a special population or group only, or is the Theory more Universal for everyone in terms of social behaviors, thoughts, and feelings?

This is the classic debate over Universality versus Individuality. This slide covers the final two characteristics – Testability and Parsimony. #7. In order to achieve Testability of a theory the Theory must generate interest in the form of real empirical research studies. For scientific understanding, can the theory be disproven? Ask yourself, based on critical research methods, can the theory be refuted or disproved? #8. When it comes to theoretical Parsimony, ask yourself, can the key predictions and principles within theory be described in the most simplistic or very few terms? Is it easy to follow and understood by most people? Your e-text chapter introduces the reader to Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance as an example of a mid-level theory. #9. Leon Festinger theorized that all humans are motivated to maintain consistency among cognitions (thoughts, attitudes, knowledge, or values). “The theory organizes what we know about human inconsistency in such a way that we are lead to some non-obvious conclusions about the relationship between attitudes and behaviors.” Pay close attention to Figure 2.2 on p. 34.

#10. For example, what if you had a positive attitude toward Kevin Spacey, Bill Cosby, Matt Lauer, Roy Moore, or Charlie Rose before 2017. How would you reconcile your positive attitudes with the news about them and how they treated women and coworkers? Cognitive Dissonance Theory suggests that inconsistency in cognitions (e.g., “I like him” vs. “he is a Bully or predator”) would lead a person to either change your positive attitude or discount the news as Fake or a Conspiracy. Another mid-level theory provided in the chapter was the theory of planned behavior. #11. Ajzen suggests that attempts to do a behavior are best predicted when a person forms behavioral intentions. Subjective norms, perceptions of control, and attitudes predict intentions. This theory has clear organization, direction, and intervention. Please see the example provided in your chapter and the figures.

Now, I would like to bring in another perspective on applied social psychology and use of theory. In “Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems” by Steg and colleagues (2008), theory has three functions. #12. The Three Functions of a Good Theory are to provide (1) understanding of a phenomenon or problem, (2) solutions to social problems, and (3) evaluation methods to determine if the solutions were successful.

#13. Steg et al. (2008) also provide a great list of commonly used terms that are similar to the term theory. In the next slide, I will share the following terms: Theory, Principles, and Models. You will read about various theories, principles, and models in applied social psychology. #14. According to Steg and colleagues (2008), a Theory is an organized set of principles and testable hypotheses that describes, explains, and predicts observed events. Some sample social thinking theories are attribution theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and theory of planned behavior. Some social influence theories are obedience, compliance, and elaboration likelihood model. Some social relations theories are in-group/out-group biases, prejudice, discrimination, contact theory, and prosocial behavior. Application of theories lead to interventions like changing our social appraisals, promoting specific behaviors, or improving social relations (Steg et al., 2008).

Sometimes social psychologists don’t develop a full-blown theory. That’s when you have principles and models. #15. Principles describe a specific process and are integrated into a theory. A Theory can be based on multiple key principles. An example is how the compatibility principle is integrated within the Theory of Planned Behavior. #16. Models are frameworks that integrate theories and principles and describe multiple causal processes. An example is the Elaboration Likelihood Model. In conclusion, a Theory is an organized set of principles with testable hypotheses that describes, explains, and predicts social behaviors. Social psychology theories provide Organization, Direction, and Guide for Interventions. Theories can be evaluated in terms of their scope, range, testability, and parsimony.

In applied social psychology there are social thinking, social influence, and social relations theories, principles, or models that lead to real interventions. Applied social psychologists tend to focus more on the inductive approach (problem-oriented). Soc3332: Understanding Social Psychological Theory - Lecture for Week 2 “In science, a theory is not just a guess. It’s a well-substantiated, well-supported, well-documented explanation for observations…The theory of gravity is based on principles of physics, has been tested many times, and has been supported by many observations.” (Baumeister & Bushman, 2017). So according to your e-text, a theory is a “set of interrelated hypotheses or propositions concerning a phenomenon or set of phenomena.” Consider the recent phenomenon of the #MeToo movement. What theory might explain why some women decided to whistle-blow against pervasive sexual harassment by powerful men in various industries? What individual and situational factors helped to spawn the #MeToo movement as discussed in the 2017 Time Person of the Year article on the Silence Breakers?

Paper For Above instruction

Theoretical frameworks play a crucial role in understanding and addressing social phenomena, as exemplified by the #MeToo movement. This movement, which gained global prominence in 2017, can be analyzed through several social psychological theories that elucidate why women decided to speak out against pervasive sexual harassment. Among these, the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) offers a comprehensive explanation by emphasizing the importance of intentions, subjective norms, perceived control, and attitudes in predicting behavior. The collective action of women in the #MeToo movement can be seen as a result of shifts in social norms, increased awareness, and perceived social support, all factors that shape behavioral intentions.

Additionally, the Social Norms Theory (Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986) suggests that behavior is influenced heavily by perceptions of what is typical or acceptable within a social group. Prior to the movement's surge, many women might have perceived that silence was the norm or that speaking out would lead to social ostracism or retaliation. However, as the movement gained momentum and stories of harassment became widely shared, these perceptions changed. The resulting shift in normative beliefs contributed to more women feeling empowered to come forward and share their experiences, validating the movement’s collective action.

Another relevant framework is Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957), which explains how individuals reconcile conflicting attitudes and behaviors. For women who may have previously held positive attitudes towards their industry or workplace but also experienced feelings of victimization, the dissonance was resolved by either changing their attitudes or rationalizing their experiences. The widespread dissemination of stories and social support helped reduce the psychological discomfort caused by dissonance, encouraging women to speak out against injustice.

Furthermore, the concept of attribution theory (Heider, 1958) illuminates how perceptions of responsibility and blame influence behavior. Society’s tendency to blame victims or excuse perpetrators may have initially hindered speaking out. However, the #MeToo movement helped shift attributions, making it easier for victims to assign responsibility to harassers and for society to recognize the systemic nature of the problem. This adjustment in attribution played a vital role in motivating women’s whistle-blowing actions.

In conclusion, the #MeToo movement exemplifies how social psychological theories—particularly the Theory of Planned Behavior, Social Norms Theory, Cognitive Dissonance, and Attribution Theory—can provide a comprehensive understanding of the individual and social forces that motivated women to speak out against sexual harassment. These theories highlight the importance of social norms, perceived control, cognitive consistency, and responsibility attribution in shaping behaviors aimed at social change.

References

• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
• Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley.
• Perkins, H. W., & Berkowitz, A. D. (1986). Perceived norms and adolescent drinking. In B. L. Berelson & M. J. Freidman (Eds.), Social norms and social influence (pp. 185–214). Springer.
• Steg, L., Buunk, B. P., & Rothengatter, T. (2008). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems. Wiley.
• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211.
• Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2017). Social psychology and human nature. Wadsworth Publishing.
• Perkins, H. W., & Berkowitz, A. D. (1986). Perceived norms and adolescent drinking. In B. L. Berelson & M. J. Friedman (Eds.), Social norms and social influence (pp. 185-214). Springer.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
• Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley.