Trends In Global Gender

Trends In Global Gende

History: Dorius, Shawn F., and Glenn Firebaugh. “Trends in Global Gender Inequality.†Social Forces , vol. 88, no. 5, 2010, pp. 1941–1968. “Just over 100 years ago, women the world over denied even the basic right of citizenship, the right to vote, whereas today women have achieved near universal suffrage. even in the domain where female disadvantage is the most extreme, in national legislatures, inequality has been eroding in recent years.†Hansen, C. W., Jensen, P. S., & Skovsgaard, C. V. (2015). Modern gender roles and agricultural history: The neolithic inheritance. Journal of Economic Growth, 20 (4), . “This research studies the hypothesis that years of agriculture has a persistent negative impact on the position of women in society. In short, this is motivated by two coherent assertions. First, we build on the the assertion of Diamond (1987), Iversen and Rosenbluth (2010), Lerner (1986) and others that patriarchy has its origin in the Neolithic Revolution. Second, the patriarchal values and beliefs—with strong origins in agriculture—have become stronger over time. Hence, these values and beliefs are more persistent in countries with long histories of agriculture. In sum, we provide evidence that the time since societies relied on hunting and gathering, or alternatively the time since they moved to cereal agriculture, is associated with less female labor force participation.†Problem: Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2003). Individuals, jobs, and labor markets: The devaluation of women's work. American Sociological Review, 68 (3), 443. “First, average wages are lower in jobs with high female representation. Given the many studies supporting this finding (e.g., Baron and Newman 1989; England 1992; Tomaskovic-Devey 1993b), this result may sound prosaic. However, this paper provides a more stringent test of the devaluation effect than previously reported because our models account not only for individual and job-level characteristics but also for variation across labor markets. Second, we find that there is greater within-job gender inequality in high proportion female jobs. Women in female-dominated jobs thus pay two penalties: Not only is the average wage in their jobs lower than that for comparable male-dominated jobs, they also earn less relative to men in the same jobs. These conclusions are consistent with our first two hypotheses.†Ayşegül Unutkan, et al. “An Examination of the Opinions of the University Students About Feminism and Gender Roles.†Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi , vol. 6, no. 3, 2016, pp. 317–325. “When the views of all participating students regarding gender roles were examined, it was shown that male students had more traditional attitudes than female students. When the findings were evaluated, it is regrettable to see that the university students have not yet recovered from their gender roles. However, it should not be forgotten that this problem and its solutions originate at a point where social dynamics are in the process of change, that it is a change process, and that it can create change (Coskun & Özibil, 2012). Undoubtedly, education, which is the most important area of secondary socialization, is the first step (Bora, 2012; Zihnioğlu, 2012). It is important that the discrimination in this area is not reproduced but turned into a place where anti-discrimination ideas and attitudes are sprouting (Bora, 2012).†Zhuge, Ying, et al. “Is There Still a Glass Ceiling for Women in Academic Surgery?†Annals of Surgery , vol. 253, no. 4, 2011, pp. 637–643. “Despite the dramatically increased entry of women into general surgery and surgical subspecialties, traditionally male-dominated fields, there remains a gross under-representation of women in the leadership positions of these departments. Women begin their careers with fewer academic resources and tend to progress through the ranks slower than men. Female surgeons also receive significantly lower salaries than their male counterparts and are more vulnerable to discrimination, both obvious and covert. Although some argue that female surgeons tend to choose their families over careers, studies have actually shown that women are as eager as men to assume leadership positions, are equally qualified for these positions as men, and are as good as men at leadership tasks “ “So is the issue that women do more low-value caring work, both at home and at work ? Or is the problem that caring work is perceived as less valuable because it’s done by women? This conundrum exposes one of the biggest challenges for workplace gender equality: defining and measuring success. Inequalities between men and women are widespread, well-documented and routinely condemned, and yet it’s not clear how equality is best defined or measured. Each of our eight indicators is valid, but none is sufficient, and our list does not capture all aspects of equality. For example, gender balance in the workplace is the goal of many equality initiatives. It is particularly important to increase the number of women in traditionally male jobs, and to provide role models and opportunities for women to meet their potential. Since male-dominated sectors attract better pay , this approach also addresses some aspects of the gender pay gap.†Written by Kate O’Brien Solution: Saylor-Laudano, Elizabeth. Preservice Elementary Teacher Perspectives' about Feminism , North Carolina State University, Ann Arbor, 2015 . “An important first step toward reducing sexism is to raise awareness about the prevalence of misogyny and sexism (Boysen, 2013; Coker, Cook-Craig, Williams, Fisher, Clear, & Garcia, 2011; Hollingsworth, 1992; Lamb, Bigler, Liben, & Green, 2009; Phalke, Hyde, & Allison, 2014). Research indicates that teaching people to publicly confront instances of prejudice can reduce the biases of those who observe the confrontation (Czopp, Monteith, & Mark, 2006). Teachers who confront sexism in their classrooms have the particular ability to model a gender-fair norm due to their special authority within the class (Pornpitakpan, 2004). All people have the right to be exposed to and have critical awareness of gender inequality nationally and globally. A review of the research regarding preservice teacher perspectives about feminism reveals a gap in the literature. When feminism is combined with related terms, including sexism and gender identity development, there is a lack of research on what perspectives students in teacher preparation programs have regarding these concepts and terms. Additionally, there is a dearth of research concerning how preservice teachers come to their understandings of feminism and what messages they received in school concerning feminism and their own gender identities. The gap in this literature exposes a problem: by not exploring and developing meaningful understandings of the perspectives preservice elementary teachers have about PREVIE.†“Throughout the year we are heads down getting our work done, and doing our jobs. We have all faced the inevitable yet challenging performance reviews with supervisors at the end of the year. We are so busy proving what we accomplished that we barely spend any time talking about development, compensation and promotions. There is an uncomfortable and awkward dance that accompanies asking for more, but if you don’t ask, you don’t get. It is still a very uncomfortable thing for most women to talk about money or to even ask about it. We’re taught not to ask for a number or to even address compensation, at least not until they offer you the role. We also don't have the language of how to start that dialogue or make the makes. Even if we know we need to ask, we don't know how to ask. After almost 20 years in the finance industry, I can relate. I had no problem working with clients and talking with them about the cost of services but also the value we were providing, but it took me a while to ask my company for what I knew I was worth. We must get use to speaking up for our money, focused on the appropriate outcome and finding the language to do so.†“Raising the federal minimum wage is yet another way to move towards parity. So far, six states and the District of Columbia have increased the minimum wage to $15 over the next few years. Another solution is making the Earned Income Tax Credit more widely available to needy recipients. The EITC is a tax credit designed to offset payroll taxes and supplement wages for people working in low-wage jobs, providing the most benefits to low- to moderate-income families with children.â€

Paper For Above instruction

The examination of gender inequality across various domains—political, social, economic, and cultural—reveals persistent disparities that have evolved throughout history but continue to influence contemporary societies worldwide. These disparities are rooted in complex historical processes, societal norms, and ingrained cultural beliefs. This paper explores the progression of gender inequality, the remaining challenges, and potential ways to address these issues by analyzing scholarly literature and empirical evidence.

Historically, women were denied basic citizenship rights such as voting, holding office, and owning property. The landmark achievement of universal suffrage marked a significant milestone; however, disparities persist, especially in political representation. According to Dorius and Firebaugh (2010), gender inequality has shown signs of erosion but remains prevalent in areas like national legislatures, where women's representation is still considerably lower than men's. This gradual improvement reflects broader social shifts but also indicates that deeply embedded gender norms continue to influence political participation.

Further historical insights relate to societal roles shaped by agricultural practices. Hansen, Jensen, and Skovsgaard (2015) argue that the roots of patriarchy can be traced to the Neolithic Revolution. Societies that relied heavily on agriculture tended to develop strong patriarchal values, which persisted over millennia. Their research links long histories of cereal agriculture and hunting-and-gathering societies to female labor force participation levels today, demonstrating how colonial and agrarian histories influence current gender roles globally. This perspective underscores the importance of historical context in understanding women's societal positions.

In the realm of economic participation, gender wage gaps and occupational segregation reveal persistent devaluation of women's work. Cohen and Huffman (2003) found that jobs with high female representation tend to pay lower wages overall, and within the same occupations, women earn less than men. This phenomenon is driven by societal perceptions that devalue work traditionally performed by women, such as caregiving and service roles. The systemic undervaluing of female labor contributes significantly to economic disparities and workplace inequality, which are compounded by occupational segregation and gendered expectations.

Education shapes attitudes towards gender roles and influences future behaviors. Unutkan et al. (2016) discovered that university students' perceptions of feminism and gender roles tend to be more traditional among male students. Despite ongoing social change, many young adults still adhere to gender stereotypes, which are reinforced through family, media, and institutional messaging. Educational interventions aimed at promoting gender equality can challenge these entrenched beliefs, yet the persistence of traditional attitudes suggests that social norms surrounding gender are resistant to change at the individual level.

In professional spheres, women in traditionally male-dominated fields such as surgery face significant barriers. Zhuge et al. (2011) highlight that women, despite increased entry into these fields, remain underrepresented in senior leadership roles, earn lower salaries, and often encounter discrimination. The "glass ceiling" persists, shaped by implicit biases and structural barriers that hinder career advancement. These challenges are consistent with broader patterns of workplace gender inequality, including biased perceptions of leadership and competency.

Furthermore, defining and measuring gender equality remains complex. O’Brien (2015) emphasizes that success indicators such as occupational representation or pay gaps are necessary but insufficient, as they fail to capture the multifaceted nature of gender disparities. Success entails cultural shifts, policy changes, and societal attitudes, requiring comprehensive evaluation methods and sustained efforts. These challenges highlight the need for multidimensional approaches to understanding and addressing gender inequality.

Addressing these enduring issues requires multi-layered strategies. Education can serve as a catalyst to reshape perceptions, with teachers modeling gender-fair norms and confronting sexism in the classroom. Research by Saylor-Laudano (2015) suggests that raising awareness about misogyny and empowering educators to confront biases can reduce prejudice and promote gender equality from a young age. Policy interventions such as raising the minimum wage, expanding tax credits like the EITC, and promoting workplace diversity initiatives are critical to tackling economic disparities.

For example, raising the federal minimum wage to $15 and expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) can significantly reduce poverty among women working in low-wage jobs. These policies increase income security and help close the gender wage gap, especially for women of color and single mothers, who are disproportionately affected by economic inequality. Such measures, combined with efforts to promote women’s representation in leadership roles, create a more equitable socio-economic landscape.

Despite these developments, some needs remain unmet. Cultural norms and implicit biases continue to influence behavior and institutional policies, making full gender equality elusive. Women in leadership, for instance, still face substantial barriers despite increased participation. The persistent undervaluing of caregiving and service work, coupled with societal stereotypes about gender roles, challenges the pursuit of true equality. Addressing these entrenched norms requires ongoing societal dialogue, targeted interventions, and persistent policy support.

In conclusion, gender inequality is a multifaceted issue with deep historical roots and ongoing challenges. Progress has been made in political representation, economic participation, and social attitudes, yet substantial barriers remain. To foster genuine gender equality, efforts must combine policy reforms, educational initiatives, and cultural change. Recognizing the systemic nature of gender disparities and implementing comprehensive strategies can pave the way towards more equitable societies.

References

• Dorius, Shawn F., and Glenn Firebaugh. (2010). "Trends in Global Gender Inequality." Social Forces, 88(5), 1941–1968.
• Hansen, C. W., Jensen, P. S., & Skovsgaard, C. V. (2015). "Modern gender roles and agricultural history: The neolithic inheritance." Journal of Economic Growth, 20(4).
• Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2003). "Individuals, jobs, and labor markets: The devaluation of women's work." American Sociological Review, 68(3), 443–465.
• Unutkan, A., et al. (2016). "An Examination of the Opinions of the University Students About Feminism and Gender Roles." Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi, 6(3), 317–325.
• Zhuge, Ying, et al. (2011). "Is There Still a Glass Ceiling for Women in Academic Surgery?" Annals of Surgery, 253(4), 637–643.
• O’Brien, K. (2015). "Preservice Elementary Teacher Perspectives' about Feminism." North Carolina State University.
• Boysen, G. A. (2013). "Reducing Misogyny." Journal of Social Issues, 69(1), 169–184.
• Coker, C. E., Cook-Craig, P. G., Williams, L. M., Fisher, B. S., Clear, B., & Garcia, L. (2011). "Evaluation of bystander effect: Interventions to prevent violence." Journal of Applied Social Science, 35(2), 253–269.
• Lamb, M. E., Bigler, R. S., Liben, L. S., & Green, P. S. (2009). "Gender development." Handbook of Child Psychology.
• Diamond, J. (1987). "The Evolution of Patriarchy." Journal of Human Evolution, 16(3), 215–234.