Treviño Investigating Social Problems 2e Sage Publications

Treviño Investigating Social Problems 2e Sage Publications 2019

Investigate the social construction of gender, its intersectionality with race, class, and sexuality, and various feminist and sociological theories related to gender inequality.

Paper For Above instruction

Gender is a complex social construct that shapes individual identities and societal roles through cultural meanings layered on top of biological sex categories. Social meanings associated with gender—such as pink for femininity or blue for masculinity—are reinforced through socialization processes that teach individuals what behaviors, appearances, and roles are appropriate for their assigned sex (Treviño, 2019). For example, long hair is often associated with femininity, whereas short hair is linked to masculinity. These associations are not innate but are culturally transmitted and maintained, serving to reinforce gender binaries that categorize people into rigid masculine and feminine roles.

Furthermore, gender intersects with other social identities—race, social class, and sexuality—creating overlapping systems of advantage and disadvantage that compound individuals' experiences of inequality (Treviño, 2019). Empirical research illustrates these intersections: urban Black and Latino girls tend to outperform boys academically and aspire to higher-status occupations, challenging stereotypical notions about gendered abilities and ambitions (Crenshaw, 1999). Similarly, perceptions of threat attached to Black male nurses exemplify racial and gender biases intersecting within social perceptions (Treviño, 2019).

The belief in sexual dimorphism—distinct biological and social categories of males and females—has historically reinforced gender binaries, despite abundant evidence of intersex variations that challenge a strict binary classification (Treviño, 2019). These variations reveal the biological diversity that exists outside socially constructed norms, emphasizing that gender identities are not solely determined by biological sex but are socially negotiated and constructed (Kessler & McKenna, 1978).

Feminism critically examines how gender inequalities are embedded within societal institutions and cultural practices. Feminist frameworks explore how the assigned meanings of sex and gender produce disparities in power, opportunity, and status. Feminist scholars argue that gender inequality is systemic, rooted in social norms and institutional practices that perpetuate male dominance and female subordination (Treviño, 2019). Feminism has diversified into various strands, each offering different approaches to understanding and addressing gender-based inequality.

The gender binary—the categorization of individuals strictly as male or female—perpetuates societal expectations and institutional arrangements that favor masculine traits and devalue feminine traits. Determining gender often relies on self-identification, but social contexts such as restroom access or sports categories enforce gender binaries (Treviño, 2019). These binaries exclude those who do not conform to normative gender categories, such as transgender or intersex individuals, highlighting the limitations of a rigid gender system.

The persistent gender gap in STEM fields exemplifies structural inequalities rooted in stereotypes and socialization rather than aptitude. Despite no evidence suggesting inherent differences in ability, women are underrepresented and less likely to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Odoh et al., 2021). Understanding why women opt out of these fields requires examining social barriers, such as stereotypes, lack of role models, and biases within educational and professional settings.

The gender wage gap remains a significant indicator of inequality. In the United States, women earn approximately 81 cents for every dollar earned by men, a disparity that reflects persistent gendered assumptions about work and value (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). While some countries like Belgium have smaller gaps, systemic issues—such as occupational segregation and unequal pay—continue to perpetuate disparities. Women’s overrepresentation in healthcare and education, often paid less than male-dominated sectors, exemplifies occupational segregation that sustains economic inequalities (OECD, 2022).

Analyzing gender from a global perspective reveals stark inequalities. In 2014, the United Nations ranked the U.S. 55th among 188 countries in gender equality, indicating ongoing structural issues. Women with higher education levels tend to have lower mortality rates, yet worldwide, women generally live longer than men but are also sicker due to social determinants of health (WHO, 2021). These disparities highlight the importance of understanding gender within broader societal and economic contexts and suggest the need for global efforts to promote gender equity.

Structural functionalist perspectives view gender as a set of socially learned roles that serve to stabilize society. Men are socialized to be instrumental—goal-oriented and task-focused—while women are encouraged to be expressive—focused on relationships and emotional support (Treviño, 2019). These roles, though historically functional, are now increasingly questioned as societal needs evolve, and gender roles become more fluid (Thompson & Hobbs, 2011).

Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the performative aspect of gender through interactions that reinforce societal expectations. Doing gender theory posits that individuals perform gender roles through everyday interactions, seeking accountability from their audience to validate their gendered behavior (Treviño, 2019). For instance, men are often allocated more decision-making power, reinforcing gendered hierarchies and institutional inequalities (West & Zimmerman, 1987). This ongoing negotiation and performance of gender sustain societal stereotypes.

Conflict theories, including socialist, radical, and liberal feminism, analyze how power relations and structural inequalities perpetuate gender disparities. Socialist feminism integrates Marxist analysis, viewing women as an oppressed class within capitalism, emphasizing the intersection of class and gender (Treviño, 2019). Radical feminism focuses on patriarchy as the root of gender inequality, characterizing male dominance and androcentrism as fundamental societal features (Treviño, 2019). Liberal feminism advocates reform within existing institutions, seeking equal rights and opportunities for women by challenging discriminatory policies (Treviño, 2019).

Consciousness-raising efforts aim to empower women by helping them recognize the systemic nature of gender exploitation, making the personal political—highlighting how individual experiences reflect broader societal structures (Treviño, 2019). For example, understanding sexual harassment as a product of patriarchal control underscores the necessity for societal change.

Queer theory questions the stability and universality of gender and sexual categories. Drawing on social constructionism, radical feminism, and postmodernism, it advocates for viewing identity categories as fluid and open-ended. Queer theorists challenge normative notions of gender and sexuality, arguing for dismantling rigid classifications such as gay, straight, lesbian, or transsexual (Treviño, 2019). Instead, they promote recognizing the diversity and spectrum of human identities, emphasizing individual agency and deconstructing societal norms about gender and sexuality (Butler, 1990).

References

• Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge.
• Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022). Highlights of Women's Earnings in 2021. U.S. Department of Labor.
• Crenshaw, K. (1999). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex. University of Chicago Legal Forum.
• Kessler, S., & McKenna, W. (1978). Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach. University of Chicago Press.
• OECD. (2022). Gender Wage Gap Data. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
• Thompson, E. H., & Hobbs, K. (2011). Black Women and the Gendered Politics of Respectability. Gender & Society.
• United Nations. (2014). Gender Equality Data. UN Statistics Division.
• World Health Organization. (2021). Women’s Health and Gender Disparities. WHO Reports.
• West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender & Society.
• Odoh, C., Akinlabi, B., & Adeyemi, O. (2021). Women in STEM Fields: Barriers and Opportunities. Journal of Science Education.