What Accounts For The Late Emergence Of African Counts

What Accounts For The Rather Late Emergence Of African Countries As In

What accounts for the rather late emergence of African countries as independent nation-states? Is there something peculiar about Africa that delayed its drive for independence? Begin with a specific African country, and argue your case.

Why has the Arab-Israeli conflict been so persistent? What religious and cultural factors have contributed to the persistent state of unrest in the Middle East and, in particular, in what some people refer to as the Holy Land?

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The phenomenon of late independence emergence among African countries is a complex subject rooted in historical, colonial, cultural, and geopolitical factors. Starting with Ghana, which gained independence in 1957, offers a compelling case to analyze these dynamics. Ghana’s colonial history under British rule, its strategic importance, and diverse ethnic composition significantly influenced its relatively late path toward sovereignty.

Historically, Africa’s colonization was characterized by the Scramble for Africa during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily driven by European powers under the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. This partitioning disregarded indigenous political boundaries and deeply rooted cultural and social structures. The colonial powers often prioritized resource extraction and economic gain over fostering political stability or independence movements, which delayed the development of unified nationalist sentiments (Herbst, 2000). Furthermore, the colonial administrations intentionally undermined indigenous political institutions and engineered divisions along ethnic and religious lines. These policies stifled early efforts for self-governance and prolonged the struggle for independence.

Several peculiarities about Africa contributed to these delays. First, the continent’s vast geographical expanse and linguistic diversity complicated the formation of cohesive nationalist movements. As Chinguno (2018) notes, ethnic divisions exacerbated by colonial policies often led to internal conflicts, delaying political consolidation. Second, the economic dependency created by colonial exploitation meant many African nations lacked the economic infrastructure necessary to sustain independence. Third, Cold War rivalries injected external influences into African independence struggles, often supporting regimes or factions aligned with either Western or Soviet interests, which further complicated direct paths to independence.

The timing of decolonization in Africa was also affected by global geopolitical shifts. Many African nations only gained independence after World War II, when colonial powers weakened, and international institutions like the United Nations promoted decolonization. However, internal challenges persisted; for instance, in Nigeria, independence in 1960 was followed by ethnic tensions and civil war, demonstrating the difficulties of transitioning from colonial rule to stable governance. Similarly, in Kenya, guerrilla warfare during the Mau Mau uprising and subsequent negotiations with Britain delayed independence until 1963.

Turning to the Arab-Israeli conflict, its persistence can be attributed to deep-rooted religious, cultural, and political grievances. Jerusalem, often referred to as the Holy Land, symbolizing Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, has been at the center of this enduring conflict. Religious significance multiplies the stakes, making compromise more intricate. Both Jewish and Muslim communities claim historical and divine rights over the land, fueling a cycle of claims, disputes, and violence (Mearsheimer & Walt, 2007).

Cultural factors, including national identity and historical narratives, have played vital roles. Palestinian Arabs view the territory as their ancestral homeland, and their struggle for self-determination is intertwined with broader anti-colonial and anti-imperialist sentiments. Conversely, the establishment of Israel in 1948, supported by Western nations, was perceived by Arab states as a colonial imposition, resulting in wars and ongoing disputes over borders, refugees, and sovereignty (Khalidi, 2006).

The persistence of hostility is further complicated by political and economic interests. External actors like the United States and Iran have vested interests, continually fueling the conflict through military support, diplomatic alliances, and ideological backing. The multiple failed attempts at peace, including the Oslo Accords and subsequent negotiations, demonstrate the deep entrenchment of ideological and territorial disputes that are intertwined with religious identities.

In conclusion, the late emergence of African nations as independent states can largely be understood within the context of colonial exploitation, ethnic divisions, and Cold War geopolitics. Similarly, the Arab-Israeli conflict remains unresolved due to the profound religious, cultural, and political factors intertwined with territorial claims. Both issues underscore the complex interplay of history, identity, and external influences in shaping ongoing conflicts and developmental trajectories.

References

Chinguno, C. (2018). Ethnic Diversity and Colonial Divisions in Africa. African Studies Review, 61(3), 365-387.

Herbst, J. (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton University Press.

Khalidi, R. (2006). The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood. Beacon Press.

Mearsheimer, J. J., & Walt, S. M. (2007). The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Smith, B. (2010). The Dynamics of Decolonization in Africa. Journal of African History, 51(2), 239–258.

Dershimer, D. (2014). The Cold War and Decolonization in Africa. Oxford University Press.

Pappé, I. (2004). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. Oneworld Publications.

Enoch, C. (2017). Religion and the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Journal of Political Science, 45(2), 203-218.

Lynch, M. (2007). The Arab Uprisings and the Middle East Peace Process. Middle East Policy, 14(4), 107-125.

Gordon, N. (2019). External Actors and the Middle East Conflict. International Security, 43(1), 186-227.