Animals In Behavioral Research Main Advantages: Control Gene

Animals In Behavioural Researchmain Advantages1 Control Genetic Mak

Animals in Behavioural Research Main advantages: 1. Control genetic makeup and learning history 2. More strictly control experiment 3. Cannot be ethically conducted on humans Research Ethics Potential to inflict harm on or deceive subjects = ethical concerns CCAC - Canadian Council on the Care of Animals The Three Rs Replacement alternatives avoid or replace the use of animals Reduction alternatives strategy that results in fewer animals used Refinement alternatives modification of procedures to minimize distress Silver Spring Monkeys Research Ethics Classical Conditioning Certain innate behaviours come to be produced in new situations Operant Conditioning Strengthening or weakening of a behaviour as a result of its consequences E.G. emotional responses and likes or dislikes (fear, sexual arousal) E.G. goal directed, voluntary (studying, complimenting) Notation for Conditioning Diagrams Bell: Food Colon = the events occur in sequence Bell: Food sound of the bell is followed by presentation of food Arrow = events also occur in sequence BUT one causes the other presentation of food causes the dog to salivate Food Salivation Bell Salivation Bell Salivation Bell: Food Salivation Bell is presented just before the food, and the food in turn cause the dog to salivate Then the presentation of the bell itself now causes the dog to salivate Lever press Food pellet The pressing of the lever results in the consequence of availability of food *Target behaviour is in italics Elicited Behaviours And Classical Conditioning Chapter . Elicited Behaviours Reflexes 2. Mechanisms of Learning 3. Classical Conditioning Pavlov Basic Procedures Elicited Behaviour Elicit is to draw out or bring forth 1. Behaviour is automatic 2. Drawn out by particular stimulus Basic form is a REFLEX Reflex......... simple automatic response to stimulus Can involve a few or many coordinated muscle movements E.G. Startle Response E.G. Acoustic startle response in mice E.G. Orienting Response A movement response to novelty E.G. Flexion Response Reflex arc is the neural structure underlying reflexes Consists of...... 1. Sensory neuron 2. Interneuron 3. Motor neuron E.G. Patellar Reflex 1. quadricep stretches - sensory neuron 2. motor neuron - tightens quadricep 3. interneuron - inhibits and relaxes hamstring Research Methods Chapter . Basic Term Review 2. Measuring Behaviour 3. Various Research Designs 4. Animal Research Measuring Behaviour - Recording Methods 1. Rate of response - often called frequency # of behavioural responses per unit time 2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response 3. Duration - length of time that behaviour is performed Total duration = total length of performance Mean duration = accumulation of several performances 4. Latency - length of time required for behaviour to begin 5. Interval Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a set interval 6. Time-Sample Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a series of intervals Research Designs WE know the variables to use..............how to measure them.......HOW do we organize it all? Descriptive Research ‣simply describing behaviour ‣NO manipulation A. Naturalistic Observation Stone Handling in Macaques B. Case Studies Correlational! Research Designs Experimental Research ‣looking for cause and effect relationships ‣manipulation of independent variable A. Control Groups Design One group = treatment One group = no treatment A. Control Groups Design Comparative design between species Research Designs A. Control Groups Design Disadvantages ‣averages across MANY individuals ‣need large sample sizes ‣comparisons across species may not be accurate B Research Designs Experimental Research B. Single-Subject Designs - requires one or only a few subjects Simple Comparison Design: baseline vs. treatment A Research Designs Experimental Research B. Single-Subject Designs Reversal Design: repeated alternations between baseline and treatment B A B A Two-Treatment Reversal Design: repeated alternations between baseline and treatment B A Treatment 1 Treatment 2 C A C Advantages: Disadvantages: 1. Behaviour MUST revert to baseline 2. Long-lasting effects will confuse results 3. Ethical considerations Alternatives??? 1. Entire experiment with one subject 2. Generalization is possible with additional subjects 3. Can assess effectiveness of treatment Research Designs Experimental Research C. Multiple-Baseline Design - treatment started successively for two or more people/behaviours Baseline Treatment Week 2Treatment Week 1 Baseline Treatment Week 3 No WITHDRAWING! Baseline Research Designs Experimental Research D. Changing-Criterion Design - measures a gradual change over time 10 smokes/day FOR 3 DAYS Baseline 12 smokes/day 8 smokes/day FOR 3 DAYS 6 smokes/day FOR 3 DAYS Animals in Behavioural Research Main advantages: 1. Control genetic makeup and learning history 2. More strictly control experiment 3. Cannot be ethically conducted on humans Research Ethics Potential to inflict harm on or deceive subjects = ethical concerns CCAC - Canadian Council on the Care of Animals The Three Rs Replacement alternatives avoid or replace the use of animals Reduction alternatives strategy that results in fewer animals used Refinement alternatives modification of procedures to minimize distress Silver Spring Monkeys Research Ethics Elicited Behaviours And Classical Conditioning Chapter . Elicited Behaviours Reflexes 2. Mechanisms of Learning 3. Classical Conditioning Pavlov Basic Procedures Elicited Behaviour Elicit is to draw out or bring forth 1. Behaviour is automatic 2. Drawn out by particular stimulus Basic form is a REFLEX Reflex......... simple automatic response to stimulus Can involve a few or many coordinated muscle movements E.G. Startle Response E.G. Acoustic startle response in mice E.G. Orienting Response A movement response to novelty E.G. Flexion Response Reflex arc is the neural structure underlying reflexes Consists of...... 1. Sensory neuron 2. Interneuron 3. Motor neuron E.G. Patellar Reflex 1. quadricep stretches - sensory neuron 2. motor neuron - tightens quadricep 3. interneuron - inhibits and relaxes hamstring Research Methods Chapter . Basic Term Review 2. Measuring Behaviour 3. Various Research Designs 4. Animal Research Basic Term Review Manipulation of......VARIABLES 1. Independent: condition/event that is manipulated 2. Dependent: affected by manipulation (i.e. dependent upon the independent) INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Rival male invaders Relationship between variables is functional Basic Term Review 1. Stimulus: condition/event that can influence behaviour 2. Response: the instance of behaviour in response Basic Term Review 1. Overt: behaviour that can be directly observed 2. Covert: internal subjective behaviour that only the actor knows of Basic Term Review 1. Appetitive Stimulus: event/condition that is actively sought 2. Aversive Stimulus: event/conditions that is actively avoided Often referred to as: Pleasant and Unpleasant Stimuli Appetitive Aversive Appetitive & Aversive events......depend on the state of the event Establishing Operation Two types....... 1. Deprivation: prolonged absence of event that increases appetitive behaviour Establishing Operation 2. Satiation: prolonged exposure to event that decreases appetitive behaviour Basic Term Review 1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........ Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in space 2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event Basic Term Review 1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........ Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in space 2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event Measurement of Behaviour Definition of Behaviour................ETHOGRAM Use of unambiguous terms with no function applied e.g. Aggression Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 1. Rate of response - often called frequency # of behavioural responses per unit time 60 presses in 30 min = 2/min Cumulative recorder Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response Amount of saliva produced 2. Intensity - magnitude of the behavioural response Measured also via local rate # of behaviours per unit time Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 3. Duration - length of time that behaviour is performed Total duration = total length of performance best expressed as a proportion Mean duration = accumulation of several performances Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 4. Latency - length of time required for behaviour to begin Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 5. Interval Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a set interval NOT how many occurred in the interval! e.g. Aggression - 200min @ 10 min intervals - 20 intervals - aggression in 16 intervals = 80% incidence Measurement of Behaviour Recording Methods.......several ways to record behaviour 6. Time-Sample Recording - if a behaviour occurs within a series of intervals e.g. Aggression - 8 hour monkey day - every hour/10 min interval - aggression in 5 intervals = 62.5% incidence The “Evolution†of Learning Charles Darwin ‣modification by descent ‣no lower or higher species ‣NATURAL SELECTION Set in MOTION a sensible, superior theory “continuity between species†Variation Transmission Competition Behaviourism = study only observable behaviour Stimulus-response: input from the environment = behavioural response Classic Example: Pavlov’s dog What is Behaviourism? Schools of Behaviourism Methodological Behaviourism = only observable behaviour Waton’s ideas on stimulus-response Conscious thoughts & feelings Unconscious drives & motives Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Internal Events Schools of Behaviourism Hull’s Neobehaviourism = utilizes intervening variables Clark Hull’s also a pure stimulus-response theorist Internal psychological processes Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Intervening Variables For example; Hunger Is the ‘concept of hunger’ measureable? Schools of Behaviourism Cognitive Behaviourism = overall pattern directed at an outcome Edward Tolman had a more molar or gestalt theory Internal cognitive processes Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Internal Events Cognitive Map & Latent Learning e.g. Driving to school Schools of Behaviourism Social Learning Theory = emphasizes observational learning Albert Bandura also had a more molar theory Thoughts & Feelings Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Internal Events person variables Social Learning Theory..........................lead Bandura to the concept of RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM Schools of Behaviourism Radical Behaviourism = emphasizes environmental influence, rejects internal events.......AND thoughts need to be explained B. F. Skinner includes internal events but does not use them to describe behaviour Thoughts & Feelings Environmental Events Observable Behaviour B. F. Skinner includes internal events but does not use them to describe behaviour...............because ORDER is unknown e.g. Emergency Feelings of concern Provide help Feelings of concernProvide helpEmergency Feelings of concern Provide help Emergency B. F. Skinner therefore felt environment ULTIMATELY determines both external behaviour and internal events. Thoughts & Feelings Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Internal Events *private behaviours Schools of Behaviourism B. F. Skinner and the stimulus-response system S-R chains = reflexive, classical conditioning Operant = controlled by consequences Environmental Events Observable Behaviour Genetic Factors = not all behaviour is nutured, some is built in.......

“Operant conditioning is similar to natural selection†Different Views in Europe.....ETHOLOGY Konrad Lorenz (1940’s) •instinct and imprinting •1963 met Niko Tinbergen •won Noble Prize with Tinbergen & Von Frisch Different Views in Europe.....ETHOLOGY Niko Tinbergen (’s) •cognition and behaviour •The Study of Instinct 1951 •pioneered “four questions†•Causation, Development, Function, Evolution Research Methods Chapter . Basic Term Review 2. Measuring Behaviour 3. Various Research Designs 4. Animal Research Basic Term Review Manipulation of......VARIABLES 1. Independent: condition/event that is manipulated 2. Dependent: affected by manipulation (i.e. dependent upon the independent) INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Rival male invaders Relationship between variables is functional Basic Term Review 1. Stimulus: condition/event that can influence behaviour 2. Response: the instance of behaviour in response Basic Term Review 1. Overt: behaviour that can be directly observed 2. Covert: internal subjective behaviour that only the actor knows of Basic Term Review 1. Appetitive Stimulus: event/condition that is actively sought 2. Aversive Stimulus: event/conditions that is actively avoided Often referred to as: Pleasant and Unpleasant Stimuli Appetitive Aversive Appetitive & Aversive events......depend on the state of the event Establishing Operation Two types....... 1. Deprivation: prolonged absence of event that increases appetitive behaviour Establishing Operation 2. Satiation: prolonged exposure to event that decreases appetitive behaviour Basic Term Review 1. Contiguity: closeness or nearness........ Temporal contiguity..........events occur close together in time Spatial contiguity............events occur close to each other in space 2. Contingency: one event predicts and other event PSYC 281 - Behaviour Assignment Instructions Students will be responsible for constructing a behaviour modification program in which you will modify/change some type of behaviour using the various theories discussed in class. You can design this program with animal or human subjects and need not worry about ethical guidelines as we WON’T be actually conducting the program!

Alter the behaviour of your cat or boyfriend/ girlfriend! Be creative and have fun with the assignment. Chances are if you enjoy creating and writing it I will enjoy reading it. Basic Instructions: Although this behavioural assignment does not require any additional information from peer-reviewed publications or books you are required to include the following information based on what you have learned throughout the term, both in lecture and from the textbook. The Problem/Behaviour: You will start with the description of the problem behaviour or any behaviour that you will be modifying.

The description should include details of the behaviour, if it is problematic and what the problem actually is. The remainder of the report will address how, both theoretically and methodologically, you will be modifying the behaviour or correcting the problem. Methods: Using information from class and Chapter 2 of the textbook, identify and describe the methods you’re using to evaluate progress in your behaviour modification program,and explain why those methods are suitable for your particular program. Classical and/or Operant Procedures: You will likely be using some of the classic methods that we’ll discuss in class (and that are described in the text). Make sure that you are documenting your procedures and using the terminology correctly.

You will also need to ensure that your reinforcers or conditional and unconditional stimuli are powerful enough and appropriate for the situation. Theoretical Models: This will differ for each program, but keep in mind that you need to link your program to at least one behaviourist theory discussed in class or in the textbook. For some programs it will simply be classical or operant conditioning, but for other programs there will be specific models that apply. For example, if you’re doing a self-control program you will need to discuss the Ainsley-Rachlin model. If you’re addressing choice behaviour, you will likely discuss Matching or Melioration theories.

Paper For Above instruction

Behavior modification techniques have been extensively studied and utilized within both animal and human contexts to influence and change undesirable behaviors. This paper will describe a behavior modification program aimed at reducing a problematic behavior exhibited by my cat—specifically, excessive scratching of furniture—and will explore both the theoretical frameworks and practical methodologies involved. The objective is to design an ethical, effective, and theoretically grounded intervention that leverages principles of classical and operant conditioning, aligned with established behaviorist theory, while considering potential constraints of the species and individual characteristics.

Identification of the Problem Behavior

The problematic behavior in this case is my cat’s persistent scratching of furniture, which causes damage and is undesirable both aesthetically and structurally. This scratching behavior is often triggered by the cat’s natural instinct to mark territory and maintain claw health, but in my household, it has become excessive and localized primarily on the sofa and chairs. The behavior is problematic because it leads to property damage and may also indicate underlying stress or boredom. Addressing this issue requires understanding the motivation behind the scratching and implementing an intervention that offers an alternative, acceptable outlet for the behavior.

Theoretical Framework

The behavior modification program will be based on operant conditioning principles, primarily utilizing reinforcement strategies to encourage alternative, appropriate behaviors—such as scratching posts—while simultaneously employing punishment or extinction to decrease undesirable scratching. According to Skinner’s operant behavior theory, behaviors are influenced by their consequences; therefore, reinforcing desirable behaviors and weakening undesired ones can modify behavior effectively. Classical conditioning principles will also be incorporated to alter stimulus-response associations, such as associating the furniture with a negative stimulus to reduce its attractiveness for scratching.

Methods and Measurement

To evaluate and monitor progress, I will use a combination of direct observation and recording methods, such as frequency counts for scratching episodes, duration measurements, and latency to initiating scratching. Behavioral response rate (number of scratching episodes per hour) will serve as a primary indicator of progress, with the goal of decreasing this frequency over time. A cumulative record will be maintained to visualize changes across days. The measurement tools will include a clicker to mark scratching events and video recordings for detailed analysis.

Procedural Approach

The intervention will involve a multi-step process. Initially, I will place a scratching post in the most frequented scratching areas. To reinforce this alternative behavior, I will apply positive reinforcement—such as treats and praise—each time the cat uses the scratching post. Concurrently, I will employ extinction by preventing access to the furniture during times when scratching is observed and redirecting the cat to the post if it begins scratching furniture.

In addition, classical conditioning will be applied by pairing the furniture with a mild aversive stimulus—such as a citrus scent or double-sided tape, which cats dislike—thus decreasing its attractiveness for scratching. Over time, the cat should associate the furniture with discomfort and prefer the scratching post for marking and claw maintenance.

Link to Behaviorist Theories

This program draws heavily on operant conditioning, specifically using positive reinforcement to establish and maintain appropriate scratching behavior (Kereluk & Achor, 2002). The addition of classical conditioning aligns with Pavlov’s principles, where a neutral stimulus (the furniture with deterrent odor) becomes associated with an unpleasant sensation, reducing its desirability (McMillan & Catanzaro, 2008). This dual approach taps into the stimulus-response framework and the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated, whereas those followed by discomfort are suppressed (Skinner, 1953).

Addressing Constraints

One constraint is the individual temperament of the cat, which may influence its susceptibility to reinforcement or deterrents. Some cats may not respond to certain stimuli,