Aristotle Nichomachean Ethics

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BOOK 1 ONLY!!!!!! Aristotle Nichomachean Ethics Book II 1. What are the two kinds of virtue (excellence)? (1103a15) 2. According to Aristotle, how does one acquire intellectual virtue? (1103a. According to Aristotle, how does one acquire moral virtue? How does one's state of character get shaped and formed? (1103a17) 4. What does Aristotle mean when he states that virtue is something we “learn by doing”? (1103a33) How is becoming an excellent person similar to becoming an excellent musician? (1103b1) 5. At the beginning of chapter 2, Aristotle states his purpose in writing about virtue. (1103b27) Is he hoping his readers (and students) acquire theoretical understanding, or is his hope to help form the activity of soul of his readers and students so they can live good lives? 6. What two things destroy virtue? (1104a12) How is this shown in the example of excellent strength or health? 7. At the beginning of chapter 3, what does Aristotle mean when he says that the pleasures or pains that follow an act are signs of an individual’s character? (1104b5) How does one’s character alter whether an action is pleasant or painful? 8. In chapter 4, Aristotle considers a puzzle. It's a puzzle about actions and the person doing the action. Explain the puzzle and Aristotle's solution. 9. In chapter 5, Aristotle makes a first pass on considering what virtue is. (He tries to determine its general category.) Is it a passion, a faculty, or a state of character? What does he mean by each of these? In particular, what is a "state of character"? 10. In chapter 6, Aristotle refines the definition of virtue. (Having established that it is a state of character, what makes a virtue an excellent state of character? How is it related to human function? 11. Still in chapter b26), Aristotle draws a distinction between the numerical mean and the mean relative to an individual person. Explain the distinction with regard to how much food is healthy. 12. Near the end of chapter 6, Aristotle provides a careful (six part) definition of moral virtue. What is his definition? (1107a1) 13. At the end of chapter 6, Aristotle points out that some actions (adultery, theft, murder) are bad in themselves (1107a11). How does virtue differ from simply avoiding such actions? 14. In chapter 7, Aristotle refers to a table that lists nine moral virtues. What virtues and vices are includes on this list? Is it possible to reconstruct this table? How is each virtue a "mean" between two extremes? 15. Several of the virtues that Aristotle lists have to do with proper desires and feelings. In particular, he mentions feelings of fear and confidence; desires related to taste and touch; the desire to give; and the feeling of anger. He suggests that through habit, we can change what we desire. Is this true? Can we educate our desires and feelings? Isn't education just aimed at the intellect and theoretical understanding? 16. Aristotle begins chapter 9 by summarizing his teaching on the virtues. What conclusion does he draw about the ease of acquiring excellent moral habits? (1109a. Aristotle gives several pieces of practical advice on how to achieve the mean. What should be avoided? (1109b5) What should we guard against? (1109b8)

Paper For Above instruction

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics provides a comprehensive examination of virtue, focusing on how humans can achieve eudaimonia, or flourishing life, through the development of good character virtues. In Book II, Aristotle explores the nature of virtue, its acquisition, and cultivation, offering valuable insights into moral psychology and ethics. This essay discusses the two kinds of virtues, the means of acquiring them, and how virtue is integral to living a good life, according to Aristotle.

Aristotle distinguishes two types of virtues: intellectual virtues and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues, such as wisdom and understanding, develop through teaching and deliberate learning. They are cultivated by engaging with philosophical and scientific pursuits. Moral virtues, on the other hand, are acquired through habit and practice. They pertain to character and involve the regulation of desires and emotions in accordance with reason. Aristotle emphasizes that moral virtues are formed by repeatedly performing virtuous acts, which shape one's character over time (1103a15). This process is akin to learning a skill or craft; just as a musician becomes proficient through practice, a person develops virtue through habitual action.

One of Aristotle's key points is that virtue is learned by doing. This emphasizes the importance of active participation and consistency in virtuous acts. Virtue is not innate but cultivated through repeated exercise, which ingrains good habits into one's character (1103a33). Becoming an excellent person, therefore, mirrors the process of becoming an excellent musician: both require persistent effort, practice, and a deliberate focus on performing the right actions until they become second nature (1103b1). Aristotle highlights that virtue, like musical skill, involves a balance—getting it right requires adjusting one's behavior in response to situations and internal states.

In Chapter 2, Aristotle clarifies that his aim is not merely to provide theoretical knowledge but to influence the moral character of his readers, helping them to live good lives. His purpose is to aid in the formation of the soul, fostering virtues that guide actions and feelings (1103b27). Virtue is thus practical and transformative; it guides how individuals respond to pleasure and pain, shaping their overall character.

Virtue can be destroyed by excess and deficiency—two opposites that violate the golden mean. For example, excess strength may manifest as brutality, while deficiency appears as weakness. Both extremes undermine virtue, which resides in moderation and balance (1104a12). Aristotle shows that a virtuous person maintains a balanced state, avoiding excesses that hinder moral development and well-being.

Chapter 3 introduces the idea that the pleasures and pains accompanying action reflect an individual's character. When a person's character is virtuous, they find pleasure in virtuous acts and pain in vicious ones; vice versa occurs when character is corrupted. This relationship indicates that moral virtue is reflected in emotional responses, which can be learned and regulated through habit (1104b5). As one cultivates virtue, their natural inclinations align with rational principles, making virtuous actions feel fulfilling rather than burdensome.

Aristotle explores a puzzle related to actions and persons in Chapter 4: whether actions are attributed to the agent or the action itself. His solution emphasizes that virtue involves intentions and dispositions, not merely external acts. A person’s character determines their actions—what they do consistently reveals who they are (1104b). Thus, moral evaluation depends on the underlying character of the individual, not just the outcomes of their actions.

In Chapter 5, Aristotle considers whether virtue is a passion, a faculty, or a state of character. He concludes that virtue is best understood as a "state of character"—a stable disposition that guides habitual conduct. Unlike passions, which are emotional responses, or faculties, which are capacities for action, virtues are ingrained through repeated practice, forming a consistent way of being (1105a). This understanding highlights the importance of virtue as a durable trait that influences behavior across different situations.

Chapter 6 refines the definition of virtue: it is an “excellent state of character” where a person’s actions align with rational principles, engaging in the mean relative to us. The mean is not a fixed point but varies according to individual circumstances, relating to human function—acting in accordance with reason and pursuing the highest good. An excellent virtue thus balances excess and deficiency, ensuring harmony between desires and rational judgment (1106b).

Aristotle distinguishes between the numerical mean and the mean relative to an individual person. The numerical mean refers to a precise mathematical middle; for example, eating a specific amount of food that is neither too little nor too much. The mean relative to the individual considers personal characteristics—what is moderate for one person might be excessive or deficient for another (1106b26). This relativity ensures virtues are adaptable and tailored to individual needs, reinforcing that moral development is context-sensitive.

In Chapter 6, Aristotle offers a six-part definition of moral virtue: it is a state of character lying in a mean determined by reason, which is devised by a rational principle, and is aimed at the appropriate goal, involving desires and actions in accordance with that mean, and developed through habit (1107a1). Virtue, therefore, involves rational judgment and habituation, enabling individuals to act rightly and develop a harmonious character.

Some actions, such as adultery, theft, and murder, are considered in themselves morally wrong because they violate fundamental goods. Virtue, however, involves more than merely avoiding such actions; it encompasses actively pursuing what is right and cultivating dispositions that lead to moral goodness (1107a11). Virtue is about the quality of one's character and the consistent inclination to act rightly, not just refraining from bad deeds.

In Chapter 7, Aristotle lists nine moral virtues: courage, temperance, liberality, magnanimity, proper ambition, patience, friendliness, truthfulness, and wit. Each virtue is a mean between two vices: excess and deficiency. For example, courage is a mean between recklessness and cowardice. These virtues regulate desires and feelings—such as fear and confidence, desires related to taste and touch, the desire to give, and feelings of anger—by habitually practicing moderation. This comprehensive list exemplifies Aristotle's doctrine of the mean, where moral excellence arises from balancing extremes.

Many virtues involve managing desires and emotions through habituation. Aristotle asserts that, while desires and feelings are natural, they can be educated and shaped by habit. This means that individuals can learn to desire rightly and feel appropriately through consistent practice, challenging the notion that education is solely intellectual. Instead, moral education involves habituating oneself to virtuous responses, thereby transforming internal dispositions (1108b).

Finally, Aristotle discusses the practicality of acquiring moral virtue. He concludes that developing excellent moral habits is not inherently easy; it requires effort and deliberate practice (1109a). Avoiding excess and deficiency is crucial, as these can hinder moral growth. We must guard against pleasure-seeking and overindulgence to maintain moderation. Aristotle emphasizes that cultivating virtue is a continual process that demands vigilance, perseverance, and self-control, all vital for achieving eudaimonia.

References

• Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean Ethics (J. A. Kerr, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
• Hursthouse, R., & Pettigrove, G. (2018). Virtue Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/
• Kraut, R. (2018). Aristotle’s Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/
• Annas, J. (2011). Intention, Character, and Virtue Ethics. Cambridge University Press.
• Broad, C. D. (1955). Ethics and Humanism. Harper & Brothers.
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• Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958). Modern Moral Philosophy. Philosophy, 33(124), 1-19.
• McDowell, J. (1979). Virtue and Reason. The Monist, 62(3), 331-350.