Art 27 Online Art History Survey III Non Western

Arth 27 Onlineart 27 Online Art History Survey Iii Non Western Persp

All modules are open book assignments. You must use your own words to explain what you have learned. Complete the assignment and submit it by the due date, including your initials on the document.

Paper For Above instruction

Art history from non-Western perspectives offers a vital understanding of diverse cultures and their artistic expressions across Africa, West Asia, and India. This paper explores critical concepts, significant archaeological sites, and key artworks that illuminate these regions' artistic and cultural histories. It emphasizes understanding foundational definitions, archaeological discoveries, artistic techniques, and cultural contexts to appreciate the richness of non-Western art traditions.

Understanding African Art and Early Evidence

Ocher, a natural clay pigment ranging from red to yellow hues, played a significant role in early African art as both a pigment and an artistic material. Ocher was used in cave paintings, burial practices, and ritualistic markings, linking it to spiritual and functional traditions in African societies. The term OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) refers to a dating technique used to determine the last time mineral grains, such as those in sediments or artifacts, were exposed to sunlight, providing crucial chronological information about archaeological findings. Therianthropes, figures that combine human and animal traits, appear in African rock art, symbolizing shamanistic or mythological themes prevalent in various indigenous cultures.

The earliest proof of artmaking in Africa dates to the Later Stone Age, with some of the oldest known paintings discovered in Blombos Cave in South Africa. These images, dating to around 100,000 years ago, include engraved ocher and abstract motifs that suggest early symbolic thinking. The discovery of the Blombos Cave by archeologists like Christopher Henshilwood in the 1990s revealed significant insights into the cognitive development of early humans. Excavations uncovered engraved stones, shell beads, and ocher artifacts, indicating complex symbolic and artistic behaviors that challenged previous notions of primitive art and demonstrated early human creativity.

Petroglyphs, Pictographs, and African Art Contexts

Petroglyphs are images carved or engraved into rock surfaces through methods that involve removing the outer layer of rock, creating a lasting image. Pictographs, in contrast, are painted images directly applied onto rock surfaces using pigments. Genre in art refers to categories or types of art distinguished by style, subject matter, or function. In Africa, petroglyphs and pictographs have been found across the Sahara, Sahara-Sahel, and Southern African regions, with notable concentrations in the Drakensberg Mountains and the Tassili N'Ajjer cliffs. The most well-known sites in North Africa include the Tassili N'Ajjer cave paintings, which display images of animals, hunters, and ritual scenes.

The Large Wild Fauna Period, a term used in studies of African rock art, describes the era when images of large animals such as elephants, rhinoceroses, and antelopes dominated the visual record. This period reflects the importance of these species to hunting economies and spiritual practices. Neolithic artists used tools like chipped stone chisels, brushes made from animal hair, and natural pigments like ocher and charcoal. Creating petroglyphs involved several steps: selecting a suitable rock surface, planning the composition, carving or chipping away the rock surface with stone tools, and then possibly adding pigment or detailing the figure.

Ancient African Art and the Palette of Narmer

A canon in art refers to the established rules or standards for ideal proportions and representation in artworks. The composite view depicts the human figure with the head and legs in profile, but the torso shown frontally, a convention used in many ancient Egyptian artworks to present a clear and comprehensive depiction. The deshret is the red crown of Lower Egypt, symbolizing the rule of the land, while the sepat is the white crown of Upper Egypt. Hierarchical scale indicates the relative importance of figures, with more significant individuals depicted larger.

The Palette of Narmer, originating from Egypt’s Early Dynastic Period around 3100 BCE, exemplifies these conventions. It was discovered in Hierakonpolis and used for ritual purposes, specifically for grinding and mixing cosmetics. The palette features the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, with Narmer depicted wearing the combined crown. The front of the palette shows Narmer smiting an adversary, symbolizing authority, while the back depicts the king’s procession and divine symbols. Inscriptions are hieroglyphic texts narrating Narmer’s achievements, serving both as artistic decoration and political documentation. The palette was not practical for daily use but served a ceremonial function that reinforced the king’s divine authority.

Ancient Egyptian Structures and the Structure of Imhotep

A mastaba is a flat-topped, rectangular tomb structure with sloping sides, serving as the resting place for Egyptian elites. The Ka is the spiritual essence or soul that needed a physical space, such as a mastaba, to dwell in after death. Imhotep was an architect and vizier who built the Step Pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser, marking a significant evolution in Egyptian funerary architecture. Djoser was a Pharaoh of the Third Dynasty, and his “House of Eternity” was designed as a stepped pyramid, differing from traditional mastabas by its multi-tiered, ascending structure made from limestone.

Innovative materials used included white limestone and mud bricks, creating a monumental and durable structure. The Heb Sed was a royal jubilee festival celebrating a pharaoh’s reign; its connection to Djoser’s pyramid was as a continuing affirmation of divine rule and eternity. The pyramid complex integrated various elements—temples, courtyards, and underground chambers—designed to ensure the king’s eternal life and divine authority.

Great Zimbabwe: Origins and Significance

Great Zimbabwe was built by the Shona people between the 11th and 15th centuries CE in present-day Zimbabwe. It is a ruined city and complex of stone structures known for its impressive dry stone masonry and sprawling enclosures. The construction involved skillful stacking of granite stones without mortar, creating fortified walls and intricate passageways. This site is significant as a major center of trade, political power, and cultural development in southeastern Africa.

Excavations have uncovered artifacts such as beads, pottery, and metalwork, illustrating the society’s wealth and engagement in extensive trade networks, including with the Swahili coast and beyond. The society that built Great Zimbabwe was organized around complex social and political systems, with a ruling elite overseeing economic activities like gold mining and trading. Over time, environmental and social changes led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe, but its monumental architecture remains a testament to the ingenuity and social organization of its builders.

West Asian Religious and Architectural Significance

A mosque is a Muslim place of worship, used for communal prayers, religious gatherings, and educational purposes. Originating in the Arabian Peninsula, mosques are characterized by features like domes, minarets, courtyards, and prayer halls. The Dome of the Rock, located in Jerusalem, exemplifies Islamic architecture with its iconic gold dome, intricate tile work, and Arabic inscriptions. It is considered sacred to Muslims as it enshrines the Foundation Stone, believed to be the site of Prophet Muhammad’s ascension.

Arabesques are ornamental motifs featuring flowing, intertwined foliage and geometric patterns, used extensively in Islamic art, including inside the Dome of the Rock, to symbolize the infinite nature of creation. Tessellations are repeating geometric patterns that cover surfaces without gaps or overlaps; in the Dome of the Rock, tessellations adorn the tile work, emphasizing harmony, order, and divine unity in Islamic aesthetics.

Samarra’s Spiral Minaret and Islamic Rituals

The spiral minaret of Samarra is part of the Great Mosque of Samarra, built in the 9th century CE during the Abbasid Caliphate. It features a distinctive helical design, wrapping around a central core, intended to be part of the mosque’s entrance and visual impact. A qibla is the direction Muslims face during prayer, oriented toward Mecca, while a mihrab is an ornate niche in the prayer hall indicating the qibla and serving as a focal point for the congregation. An imam is a religious leader who leads prayers and provides spiritual guidance.

The spiral design of the minaret was unusual for its time, with some scholars suggesting it aimed to symbolize the connection between heaven and earth or to serve as a visual landmark. Its height and spiraling form facilitated visibility over the city but posed practical challenges for maintaining and ascending the structure, impacting its usability for call to prayer and ritual activity.

Indus Valley Civilization: Urban Planning and Innovation

Bitumen, a natural tar-like substance, was used in Indus Valley architecture for waterproofing and sealing. The Indus Valley Civilization flourished around 2600–1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, distinguished from contemporary civilizations by its sophisticated urban planning and drainage systems.

The cities of the Indus Valley featured grid-like layouts with uniform street patterns, advanced drainage systems, and standardized brick sizes indicating a centralized administration. Buildings were primarily made of sun-dried and baked bricks, arranged around courtyards with narrow alleyways. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro exemplifies innovative engineering—constructed with kiln-baked bricks and sealed with bitumen to prevent water leakage. It was a large rectangular tank, perhaps used for ritual purification, reflecting religious or social significance linked to early Hindu practices.

Ashoka and the Lion Capital of Sarnath

Ashoka was an Indian emperor of the Mauryan dynasty who converted to Buddhism and promoted its spread throughout his realm. The Lion Capital of Sarnath, created around 250 BCE, was originally positioned atop a pillar at the Sarnath archaeological site and symbolizes Buddha’s teachings and authority. It features four Asiatic lions standing back to back atop a circular abacus decorated with stylized lotus and palmette motifs, indicative of Hindu cosmology.

The four animals on the abacus—elephants, lions, bulls, and lotus blossoms—symbolize divine protection, power, and purity. The four wheels, or dharmachakras, represent the spread of the Dharma (Buddha’s teachings). The lion, as a symbol of sovereignty and enlightenment, underscores Ashoka’s role in propagating Buddhist values. The Sarnath Lion Capital remains an iconic emblem of India’s heritage and the institutionalization of Buddhist principles in governance.

References

• Blake, S. (2002). African Rock Art. University of California Press.
• Henshilwood, C. S., & Marean, C. (2003). The Origin of Modern Human Behavior. Annual Review of Anthropology, 32, 319–338.
• Wilkinson, T. (2000). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.
• Falkenstein, A. (2008). Great Zimbabwe: History and Archeology. University of Zimbabwe Publications.
• Khan, S. (2014). Islamic Architecture: Its Features and Significance. Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 45(3), 45–62.
• Michell, G. (1995). The Islamic World: Art and Society. Thames & Hudson.
• Meadow, R. H., & Park, R. (1994). Early Incipient Civilizations. Scientific American Library.
• Possehl, G. L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira.
• Sullivan, E. (1998). Ashoka and the Spread of Buddhism. Cambridge University Press.
• Thieme, P. (2017). The Art and Architecture of Ancient India. Princeton University Press.