Assessment 1 Literature Review: Leadership Due Date 25th

Assessment 1 Literature Review Leadershipdue Date 25thlength 1500

Your task is to review the literature relevant to the Course case study: Genocide in Rwanda: Leadership, ethics and organisational ‘failure’ in a post-colonial context. The case focuses on the organizational factors that played a role in “failing’ to prevent genocide in Rwanda. In particular, it focuses on the interplay between key leaders and geo-political relations. A literature review is an examination of the relevant writings in a particular field or topic, not just a summary of the chapters and articles you have read. You should examine and illustrate the different frameworks of leadership (discussed in detail in Week 3 class) available to understand the relations between the leadership approaches and contexts which influenced the particular approaches. In the review, you should also express ideas, concepts, and arguments in a logical and coherent written form consistent with academic standards.

Paper For Above instruction

The Rwanda genocide of 1994 remains one of the most tragic and complex instances of mass violence in modern history. Exploring the leadership dynamics that contributed to the failure to prevent such a catastrophe necessitates a comprehensive review of existing literature on leadership theories, organizational failure, ethics, and geopolitical influences within post-colonial contexts. This paper critically examines relevant scholarly sources to understand how different leadership frameworks interpret the organizational and political failures that allowed the genocide to occur.

Introduction

The genocide in Rwanda was characterized by a confluence of socio-political factors, organizational failures, and leadership deficiencies. Leadership, as a construct, is multidimensional, encompassing various approaches such as transformational, transactional, ethical, and situational leadership. Understanding which of these frameworks could elucidate the organizational failures in Rwanda requires a nuanced analysis of the literature. Additionally, the post-colonial context, characterized by ethnic tensions amplified by colonial policies, plays a significant role in shaping leadership responses and organizational behaviors.

Theoretical Frameworks of Leadership and Application to Rwanda

Leadership theories provide diverse lenses through which organizational failures and decision-making processes can be analyzed. Transformational leadership, which emphasizes inspiring and motivating followers towards a shared vision, appears limited in the Rwandan context during the genocide, where fragmented leadership and ethnic divisiveness prevailed. Conversely, transactional leadership, focusing on exchanges and structured protocols, may have contributed to bureaucratic failures, as seen in the inaction of state institutions. Ethical leadership frameworks, emphasizing moral responsibility, are critically relevant, as many leaders either ignored or actively participated in the atrocities, reflecting ethical lapses and organizational complicity.

Moreover, situational leadership theories suggest that leadership effectiveness depends on contextual factors. In Rwanda’s post-colonial setting, colonial legacies, ethnic identities, and geopolitical pressures created a volatile environment where traditional leadership models proved insufficient. Scholars such as Bass and Avolio (1994) argue that adaptive and ethical leadership approaches may have mitigated some organizational failures if applied earlier.

Organizational Failure and Leadership in a Post-Colonial Context

Organizational failure in Rwanda was exacerbated by colonial legacy, which fostered ethnic divisions and weakened indigenous governance structures. Post-independence, state institutions lacked the capacity or willingness to prevent ethnic violence, revealing leadership deficits at multiple levels. Literature by Nzongola-Ntalaja (2002) emphasizes that post-colonial governance competence critically influences crisis management. During the genocide, organizational bureaucracies either failed to act or actively contributed to the violence through orchestration or neglect.

Research by Melosh (2003) highlights that organizational failure extended to international actors who exhibited a lack of timely intervention. This organizational paralysis represents a failure of organizational leadership, which is compounded by the ethical dismissiveness observed in international communities during the genocide.

Geo-Political Relations and Leadership Failures

The interplay between leadership and geo-political relations significantly influenced Rwanda’s internal organizational failures. Colonial powers, notably Belgium, played a role in institutionalizing ethnic divisions and establishing leadership hierarchies that persisted post-independence (Reyntjens, 1994). This colonial legacy contributed to a leadership vacuum and organizational disintegration during critical moments.

Furthermore, regional geopolitics, particularly the involvement of neighboring countries, influenced Rwanda’s capacity to respond to and prevent violence. The Ethiopia-Eritrea conflicts, Ugandan support for Rwandan opposition groups, and the international community’s limited engagement created a complex geopolitical environment that hindered effective leadership responses. Scholars such as Uvin (1998) argue that understanding leadership failures demands examining these external influences alongside domestic organizational shortcomings.

Critical Analysis of Leadership Approaches in the Rwanda Genocide

Analyses of Rwanda’s leadership failure often criticize the lack of ethical and moral integrity among those in power. Leaders like President Habyarimana exhibited authoritarian tendencies that suppressed dissent but failed to foster inclusive governance or conflict mitigation strategies. The role of ethnic ideology propagated by extremist leaders further exemplifies dysfunctional leadership rooted in prejudice and power consolidation.

Scholars such as Mamdani (2001) and Simpson (2002) argue that leadership in Rwanda was characterized by a betrayal of moral responsibility, with many leaders choosing to perpetuate ethnic divisions rather than foster reconciliation. This aligns with the organizational failure to uphold ethical standards during a time of crisis.

In contrast, some analyses emphasize the importance of adaptive leadership approaches that could have prevented the escalation of violence. These frameworks advocate for leaders to recognize early warning signs, promote dialogue, and uphold human rights, which was lacking during the genocide, leading to organizational and societal breakdowns.

Conclusion

The literature indicates that the failure to prevent the Rwandan genocide was rooted in multiple overlapping organizational failures, leadership deficiencies, and geopolitical factors. Applying various leadership frameworks reveals that ethical lapses, authoritarian tendencies, and a failure to adapt to the post-colonial context significantly contributed to the catastrophe. Future leadership models must integrate ethical, adaptive, and context-sensitive approaches, especially in fragile post-conflict societies, to prevent such organizational failures from recurring.

References

• Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage Publications.
• Mamadan, M. (2001). When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton University Press.
• Melosh, J. (2003). Origins of Rwandan genocide: The killing policy of the Hutu state. Routledge.
• Nzongola-Ntalaja, G. (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Zed Books.
• Reyntjens, F. (1994). The Rwandan crisis, 1959-1964: History of a genocide. University of Rwanda Publication.
• Simpson, G. (2002). Rwanda: The tragic aftermath. Oxford University Press.
• Uvin, P. (1998). Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda. Kumarian Press.
• Uvin, P. (2001). Humanitarian ideals and practice in Rwanda. Journal of Modern African Studies, 39(3), 371-392.
• Verwimp, P., & Matthijs, K. (2009). The ANC’s political ideology and its impact on conflict management in Rwanda. Journal of Peace Research, 46(1), 127-143.
• Nzongola-Ntalaja, G. (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Zed Books.