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Physical Characteristics of Primates • Specialized limbs and locomotion • Lack of dietary specialization, reflected in dentition • Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell • Neocortex expansion and greater dependence on learning Social Characteristics • Longer period of gestation and dependency of offspring • Dependence on flexible, learned behavior • Social groups and permanent association of adult males • Diurnal activities Geographical Distribution and Habitats Primate Habitats • Most live in tropical or semitropical areas of the new and old worlds. • Most are arboreal, living in forest or woodland habitats. • No nonhuman primate is adapted to a fully terrestrial environment; all spend some time in the trees.
Primate Diet and Teeth • Omnivorous • Incisors for biting and cutting; premolars and molars for chewing and grinding • Dental formula • New World Monkeys have two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars on each side in both upper and lower jaws: 2.1.3.3. (34 total) • Old World anthropoids have 2.1.2.3 (32 total) Primate Limbs • A tendency towards erect posture. • Hands and feet possess grasping ability. • Features of the hands and feet: • 5 digits on hand and feet • Opposable thumb • Partially opposable great toe • Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits Limbs and Evolution • Many monkeys are able to grasp objects with an opposable thumb, while others have very reduced thumbs.
Limbs and Evolution • Humans are capable of a “precision grip.†• Chimpanzees, with their reduced thumbs, are also capable of a precision grip, but they frequently use a modified form. Locomotion • Quadrupedal, walk on all fours • Vertical clinging and leaping • Brachiation • Knuckle walking Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns Quadrupedal • Almost all primates are at some times quadrupedal, they walk on all four legs. • Apes use specialized form, knuckle walking, due to arm length Quadrupedal Knuckle walking: Weight is on back of fingers not palms due to arm length Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns Vertical clinging and leaping. • Hangs on trees or branches vertically and uses strong hind legs to leap forward or backward. • Notice long hind legs capable of powerful leaping and shorter front limbs. • Characteristic of lemurs, and tarsiers Vertical clinging and leaping Anatomy, Limb Proportions and Locomotor Patterns Brachiating • Locomotion by suspending body from one arm and swinging forward and switching to the other arm (think monkey bars) • Semibrachiators also leap and often use prehensile tail • All apes are capable of, and occasionally braciate • Notice arms longer than legs, long curved fingers and shortened thumb, lower back is short and stabilized • Characteristic of gibbons and siamangs Brachiating Primate Senses • Increased reliance on sight in comparison to other mammals • Primates have a decreased reliance on the sense of smell.
Vision • Stereoscopic Vision • Visual images are superimposed on one another providing depth perception (three dimensions). • Stereoscopic vision is partly a function of structures in the brain, visual input is shared with both hemispheres of the brain. • Binocular Vision • Vision characterized by overlapping visual fields provided for by forward- facing eyes. • Binocular vision is essential to depth perception • Color • Color vision is a characteristic of diurnal primates. • Nocturnal primates lack color vision. Binocular Vision in Primates Comparison of Primate Skulls • The skull of a male baboon compared with that of a red wolf. • Note the forward-facing eyes above the snout in the baboon, and the lateral position of the eyes of the wolf. • The baboon’s large muzzle doesn’t reflect a heavy reliance on smell.
Comparison of Primate Skulls • The skull of a gibbon (left) compared with that of a red wolf (right). • The absolute size of the braincase in the gibbon is slightly larger than that of the wolf, even though the wolf is six times the size of the gibbon. Primate Classification Survey of Living Primates • Prosimians • Lemurs and Lorises • Tarsiers • Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans • New World Monkeys (Platyrrihini) • Old World Monkeys (Catarrhini) • Hominoids: Apes and Humans Lemurs and Lorises • The most primitive of the primates. • Characteristics: • Reliance on olfaction, presence of rhinarium • Laterally placed eyes • Shorter gestation and maturation • Dental specialization called the "dental comb†Lemur Dental Comb • Formed by forward- projecting incisors and canines. • This is a derived characteristic Rhinarium • The moist, fleshy pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammals. • The rhinarium enhances an animal’s ability to smell. • This is a primitive (ancestral) characteristic Lemurs • Found on the island of Madagascar and other islands off the coast of Africa. • Characteristics: • Vertical clingers and leapers with quadrepedialism • Larger lemurs are diurnal and eat vegetable foods: fruit, leaves, buds, and bark. • Smaller lemurs are nocturnal and insectivorous (insect -feeding).
Geographical Distribution of Living Lemurs Lemurs Ring-tailed Lemur Sifakas Aye Aye Lorises • Found in tropical forests and woodlands of India, Sri Lanka, southeast Asia, and Africa. • Characteristics: • Nocturnal • Lorises use a climbing quadrupedalism. • Galagos use clinging and leaping • Some are insectivorous; others supplement their diet with fruit, leaves, gums, and slugs. • Females frequently form associations for foraging or in sharing the same sleeping nest. Slow Loris Slender Loris Galago or “Bush Baby†Lorises Tarsiers • Small nocturnal primates found on the islands of southeast Asia. • Characteristics • Eat insects and small vertebrates which they catch by leaping from branches (only extant carnivore among the primates). • Large immobile eyes, 180 degree head rotation • Basic social pattern appears to be a family unit consisting of a mated pair and their offspring.
Geographical Distribution of Tarsiers Philippine Tarsier Dian’s Tarsier Tarsiers Anthropoids (Monkeys, Apes and Humans) • Common traits: • Larger brain and body size • Reduced reliance on the sense of smell • Greater degree of color vision • Bony plate at the back of the eye socket • Longer gestation and maturation periods • Fused mandible Monkeys • Represent about 85% of all primate species. • Divided into two groups separated by geography and several million years of evolutionary history: • New World monkeys • Old World monkeys New World Monkeys • 70 species almost exclusively arboreal. • Found in southern Mexico and Central and South America. • Two • Characteristics: • Huge variation from tiny marmosets to large howler monkeys • Almost all are exclusively arboreal • All but one are diurnal Geographical Distribution of Living New World Monkeys Marmosets and tamarins • Eat fruit, leaf buds, insects, and tree sap • Marmosets and tamarins are unique in that: • they have claws instead of nails • bear twins • live in mated pairs • males extensively care for their offspring Golden Lion Tamarin Pygmy Marmoset Cebid Monkeys • Howlers, muiquis, spider monkeys have prehensile tail used for locomotion and food gathering • Live in social groups of both sexes and of all ages Old World Monkeys • Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid desert to snow-covered areas in Japan and china. • Characteristics: • Most quadrupedal and arboreal • All belong to the Cercopithecidae family. • Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines and the colobines.
Geographical Distribution of Living Old World Monkeys Sexual Dimorphism • Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. • Many old world monkeys and apes display pronounced sexual dimorphism, this is linked to reproduction strategies • This will be discussed next week Orangutan Gelada Baboon Lowland Gorilla Cercopithecines • The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons. • Omnivorous: eat fruit, plant matter, insects, small animals and eggs • Baboons and guenons are found in Africa • Macaques are found in southern Asia and India • Both baboons and macaques live in large social groups of adults and offspring Hamadryas Baboon Schmidt’s Guenon Japanese Macaque Colobines • The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs. • Primarily leaf eaters • Live in small groups with one or two adult males Red Colobus Black and White Colobus Francois' langur Hominoids (Apes and Humans) • Characteristics distinguishing hominoids from monkeys: • Larger body size • Absence of a tail • Shortened trunk • More complex behavior • More complex brain • Increased period of infant development Geographical Distribution of Living Asian Apes Gibbons and Siamangs • Found in the tropical areas of southeast Asia. • Characteristics: • Adaptations for brachiation may be related to feeding while hanging from branches. • Diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers, and insects. • Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring with males helping to care for offspring • Males and females delineate their territories with whoops and “songsâ€.
White-handed gibbon • Note the long curved fingers, long arms, and heavily muscled shoulders. Siamang • Whooping to mark territory Orangutans (Pogo pygmaeus) • Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo and Sumatra. • Characteristics: • Almost completely arboreal. • Quadrepedal both on the ground and in the trees • Pronounced sexual dimorphism. • males = 200 lbs, females = 100 lbs • Solitary social lives, except mothers with offspring • Principally frugivorous (fruit-eating). Orangutans Female Infant Male Geographical Distribution of Living African Apes Gorillas • Lowland gorillas are confined to forested areas of western and eastern equatorial Africa • Mountain gorillas live in the mountains of central Africa • Characteristics: • Largest of the living primates. • Males can weigh up to 400 pounds, females 200 pounds. • Primarily terrestrial, use knuckle –walking. • Groups consist of one or two large silverback male, a few adult females, and their sub-adult offspring. • Vegetarian with some fruit Western Lowland Gorillas Male (left) and female with infant (right).
Mountain Gorillas Female and infant (left) and male (right). Chimpanzees • Found in equatorial Africa. • Characteristics: • Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in limb proportions and upper-body shape. • Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the ground and brachiation in the trees. • Slightly sexually dimorphic • Eat a variety of plant and animal foods. • Large communities of as many as 100 individuals. • Usually formed around bonded males , but some groups form around bonded females Chimpanzees Male (left) and female and infant (right). Bonobos (Pan paniscus) • Only found in an area south of the Zaire River. • Population is believed to only number a few thousand individuals. • Characteristics: • Less stocky with longer limbs, and less aggressive and more arboreal than chimpanzees and born with dark face • Exploit the same foods as chimps, including occasional small mammals. • Male-female bonds constitute the societal core. • Sexuality includes frequent copulations throughout the female's estrous cycle.
Female Bonobos With Young Humans (Homo sapiens) • The only living species in the family Hominidae. • Human teeth are typical primate teeth. (2.1.2.3) • Dependence on vision for orientation to the world • Flexible limbs and grasping hands • Omnivorous diet • Cognitive abilities are the result of dramatic increases in brain size. • Habitually bipedal Intelligence • Mental capacity; ability to learn, reason, or comprehend and interpret information, facts, relationships, and meanings. • The other great apes have been found to have varying levels • The capacity to solve problems, whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through insight. • The other great apes have also shown the ability to problem solve Endangered Primates • Over half of all living primates are endangered, many face immediate extinction. • Three reasons: • Habitat destruction • Hunting for food • Live capture for export or local trade Hunting of Primates • In West Africa the most serious problem is hunting to feed the growing human population. • Estimated that thousands of primates, are killed and sold for meat every year. • Primates are also killed for commercial products.
Paper For Above instruction
The evolutionary journey of primates offers profound insight into the development of human species and their relationship with non-human relatives. As a diverse and adaptive order, primates possess a suite of physical, social, and behavioral characteristics that have enabled them to thrive across various habitats, especially in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Understanding these features not only illuminates primate biology but also traces the evolutionary roots that distinguish humans from other species. This paper reviews the defining characteristics of primates, their taxonomy, social behaviors, adaptations, and the ongoing conservation challenges they face today.
Primates are characterized by several specialized physical features that set them apart from other mammals. These include highly adaptable limbs and locomotor abilities, such as grasping hands with opposable thumbs and feet capable of grasping objects, which are fundamental for arboreal life and complex manual tasks (Fleagle, 2013). Most primates show an erect posture tendency and exhibit limb proportions designed for various locomotor modes like quadrupedalism, leaping, brachiation, and knuckle walking. For instance, gibbons are adept at brachiation, swinging from branch to branch, facilitated by long arms and curved fingers, while gorillas primarily use knuckle walking, a form of quadrupedalism adapted for terrestrial movement (Gebo et al., 2020). These limb adaptations have evolved to optimize locomotion in diverse environments, especially in forests.
Sensory adaptations also mark primate evolution, with a notable shift from reliance on olfaction to enhanced visual acuity. Primates generally possess forward-facing eyes resulting in stereoscopic and binocular vision, crucial for depth perception and complex spatial awareness (Masters et al., 2021). Color vision, predominantly present among diurnal species, supports fruit foraging and social signaling. The reduction in reliance on the sense of smell is evident in the decreased size of olfactory structures, such as the rhinarium, in comparison to more primitive mammals like lemurs. The primate skull exhibits a larger braincase relative to body size, reflecting increased cognitive capacities, especially in neocortex development, which underpins higher-order functions such as problem-solving and social interactions (Rilling & Insel, 2008).
The evolutionary trajectory of primates is also evident in their diverse social structures and behaviors. Most primates form complex social groups that facilitate cooperation, predator defense, and resource sharing. Species like baboons and chimpanzees organize into troop hierarchies with alpha males, while orangutans tend to have more solitary patterns, particularly in Bornean populations (Mitra et al., 2022). Female primates often invest heavily in offspring through prolonged gestation, lactation, and juvenile dependency, which can last several years, indicating advanced parental investment. Such behaviors necessitate flexible and learned social skills, which are evident in grooming rituals, communication signals, and coordinated group movements (Tomasello, 2019).
Primates exhibit remarkable adaptability in their diets, which are mainly omnivorous. Their dentition reflects this flexibility, with incisors suited for biting, carnassials for shearing, and molars for grinding plant material. The dental formula varies among groups, such as 2.1.3.3 in New World monkeys and 2.1.2.3 in Old World monkeys, indicating evolutionary divergence (Kelley et al., 2014). This dietary adaptability is supported by their versatile limbs and foraging behaviors, from extractive feeding in tamarins to leaf-eating in colobus monkeys. Their dietary and locomotive strategies are intricately linked to their habitat usage, primarily arboreal in forested environments.
Locomotor diversity among primates exemplifies their evolutionary innovation. They move using quadrupedalism—walking on all fours—vertical clinging and leaping, brachiation, and knuckle walking. For example, lemurs and tarsiers are adept at vertical leaping, utilizing powerful hind limbs and agile bodies, while gibbons specialize in brachiation, swinging effortlessly between branches (Gebo et al., 2020). Humans, however, have evolved a specialized bipedal gait, an adaptation to terrestrial life and varied environments. The limb proportions, pelvis structure, and spinal column in humans facilitate upright walking, setting humans apart from other primates and underpinning their unique ability to navigate diverse terrains (Lovejoy, 2015).
Primates’ sensory reliance has shifted dramatically from ol