Comm 305 Midterm Exam Study Guide
Comm 305 Midterm Exam Study Guidethe Exam Will Be Administered On Bla
Explain how culture, mass communication, and mass media are related and how they affect each other.
Is there any value in looking at culture using the ‘skyscraper’ metaphor? Why or why not?
What kind of cultural and social changes did each of the communications eras bring about?
Why is it important to analyze the mass media within a cultural context?
What is the difference between the linear and alternative model of communication?
Why is the map approach to culture better and more conclusive than the vertical approach? Define the steps of the critical process Campbell is suggesting in applying the map approach.
Describe some of the factors that led to an increased popularity of books and bookstores in the U.S. between 1880 and 1920?
How did the elite react to the first paperback books in late 19th century?
Discuss some of the concerns resulting from the increasing consolidation of ownership in the book publishing industry.
Why did objective journalism develop, and what are its characteristics? Make sure you remember the people who created this type of reporting and explain how that has defined the journalism of today. Also, what kind of journalism/writing followed objective journalism and why?
What is yellow journalism, and what kind of journalistic practices did it affect? Explain the role of Pulitzer and Hearst in defining newspapers history.
Why has newspaper circulation declined over the years? How has the industry been reacting in the digital era of communication?
Who started the trend of consolidation of ownership in newspapers’ history and how is that affecting the industry today and the role of newspapering in democratic society?
How was the social and cultural impact of magazines different from that of newspapers in the history of the two industries?
What factors contributed to the rise and then decline of general-interest magazines?
How did muckraking in magazine writing lead to the need for a general audience?
Describe some of the factors that triggered the move toward magazine specialization?
Discuss how the term cultural minority changed from the 1960s to the 1980s and 1990s thanks to magazines.
If magazines through heavy corporate advertising identify readers as consumers first and citizens second, what kind of impact might this have on democracy?
Why did cover music become so prominent in the development of rock and roll and consequently the record industry in the 1950s?
What do we mean by the British invasion in U.S. music history and what impact did it have on the recording industry?
Why do many forms of alternative music become commercially successful?
Why did the government encourage monopoly of radio ownership and what changes did the 1934 Communications Act bring?
Paper For Above instruction
Culture, mass communication, and mass media are intricately interconnected components of societal development, each influencing and shaping one another in profound ways. Culture encompasses the shared values, beliefs, norms, and practices that define a society. Mass communication serves as the mechanism by which cultural values and information are transmitted across large audiences through various media platforms. Mass media acts as the conduit that disseminates cultural content, ideas, and narratives, thereby shaping societal perceptions and fostering shared cultural experiences (Easton & Dennis, 2015). The reciprocal relationship suggests that while culture influences mass media's content and priorities, the media, in turn, contributes to the evolution of culture by introducing new ideas, trends, and discourses (McLuhan, 1964). For example, television and the internet serve as platforms that influence cultural norms relating to gender roles, political participation, and social identities, illustrating their mutual impact (Lievrouw & Livingstone, 2006).
The 'skyscraper' metaphor provides a compelling way to conceptualize culture's layered nature, viewing it as a structure with multiple levels—foundational, middle, and top—each representing different aspects of cultural phenomena. The base reflects societal values and core traditions, the middle encompasses popular culture and social practices, and the top symbolizes elite culture and intellectual pursuits (Shields, 1991). This metaphor is valuable because it emphasizes the complexity and stratification within culture, allowing analysts to examine how dominant narratives at the upper levels influence or clash with grassroots cultural expressions. Critics argue, however, that the skyscraper metaphor may oversimplify culture's fluidity and interconnectedness, as cultural elements are often more dynamic and less hierarchical than the metaphor suggests. Nonetheless, it remains a useful tool for understanding cultural stratification and engagement (Williams, 1983).
Throughout different communication eras, significant cultural and social shifts have occurred. The oral communication era prioritized face-to-face interactions and community-based storytelling, fostering collective identities and oral traditions (McLuhan, 1964). The manuscript culture marked the rise of written records, influencing religion, governance, and personal identity through manuscripts and early print (Eisenstein, 1979). The print era, with the advent of the printing press, democratized access to information, encouraging literacy and mass readership, which led to social reforms and the spread of ideas critical to democracy (Eisenstein, 1979). The electronic era introduced radio and television, transforming accessibility and immediacy of information, which contributed to a shared national consciousness but also raised concerns about media dominance and cultural homogenization (Rogers, 2003). The digital age, characterized by the internet and social media, has further democratized communication, enabling interactive and user-generated content, reshaping societal participation and cultural production (Castells, 2010). Each era's technological innovations have propelled social change, from community cohesion to individual empowerment, sometimes accompanied by tensions around information control and cultural identity (McChesney, 2008).
Analyzing mass media within a cultural context is vital because media serve as reflections and constructors of cultural values. Understanding this context helps uncover biases, power dynamics, and ideological influences shaping content (Giroux, 1983). Cultural analysis reveals how media messages reinforce or challenge societal norms, contributing to social change or stability. Moreover, media operate within a political-economic landscape that influences the nature of content, ownership, and access, affecting democratic processes and cultural diversity (Mosco, 2009). For example, media ownership concentration can distort representation, marginalize minority voices, and limit cultural diversity, impacting societal cohesion and democratic engagement (Baker, 2007). Therefore, interpreting mass media through a cultural lens allows scholars and practitioners to critically assess the effects of media on societal values, identity, and power relations.
The linear model of communication assumes a straightforward process: sender encodes a message, transmits it through a channel, and receiver decodes it, with minimal feedback or interaction. This model emphasizes message clarity and transmission efficiency but often neglects the complexities of interpretation and context (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). In contrast, the alternative or interactive model recognizes that communication involves ongoing feedback, shared understanding, and contextual influence, making it more representative of real-world interactions (Lieberman, 1969). The map approach to culture, championed by Campbell, advocates viewing culture as a dynamic network of interconnected elements rather than a hierarchical or linear structure. It involves steps like identifying cultural nodes, examining their associations, and analyzing how they influence perceptions and behavior (Campbell, 2013). This approach promotes a more nuanced understanding, emphasizing the interconnected and multi-dimensional nature of cultural phenomena.
The map approach to culture, as opposed to the vertical, hierarchical model, offers a more comprehensive understanding of cultural phenomena by emphasizing the interconnectedness of cultural elements across different domains. It recognizes that culture is not a top-down hierarchy but a network of relationships and influences that shape societal beliefs, values, and practices (Campbell, 2013). The critical process involves identifying cultural nodes (key concepts or symbols), exploring their relationships with other nodes, and analyzing how these connections influence cultural perceptions. This method allows for a flexible, multi-dimensional analysis of culture, acknowledging its complexity and adaptive capacities, contrasting with the rigid, linear vertical approach that often oversimplifies cultural dynamics (Williams, 1983).
The increased popularity of books and bookstores between 1880 and 1920 was driven by multiple factors. Advances in printing technology reduced costs, making books more affordable and accessible to a broader audience (Eisenstein, 1979). The rise of literacy and education, fueled by compulsory schooling, expanded readership demographics (McLuhan, 1964). Social mobility aspirations motivated individuals to pursue self-education and leisure reading, further boosting demand (Lievrouw & Livingstone, 2006). The growing publishing industry and emergence of commercial publishers created a competitive marketplace that increased book production and variety (Eisenstein, 1979). Additionally, the establishment of independent bookstores and specialized shops catered to growing literacy markets, and there was a surge in literary and cultural magazines that stimulated readership (Meiss, 1982). This era marked a cultural shift emphasizing individual self-improvement and knowledge acquisition.
The elite's reaction to the first paperback books in the late 19th century was largely ambivalent or cautious. Many viewed them as low-quality, disposable, and potentially corrupting influences that threatened the sanctity of high culture and literary standards (Eisenstein, 1979). Some conservatives feared paperback books could lead to moral decline by making literature more accessible and affordable to the masses, thus diluting cultural prestige. Nevertheless, publishers recognized their commercial potential, and over time, the quality and variety of paperbacks improved, leading to broader acceptance. The eventual shift was driven by the realization that paperback books could democratize reading, making literature accessible to the working class and expanding the overall readership (Meiss, 1982).
Concerns over the increasing consolidation of ownership in the book publishing industry include the potential for reduced diversity of viewpoints, diminished competition, and barriers to entry for smaller or independent publishers. Large conglomerates may prioritize profits over cultural diversity, leading to homogenization of content and the marginalization of niche or minority voices. This concentration also raises fears of-profit-driven censorship, reduced innovation, and the possible underrepresentation of marginalized groups within published material (Baker, 2007). Furthermore, consolidation can impact the industry’s resilience, making it more susceptible to market fluctuations and less responsive to cultural needs. Critics argue that such monopolization threatens the democratic role of publishing as a medium for fostering informed citizenry and cultural pluralism.
Objective journalism emerged as a response to the need for factual, unbiased reporting, countering sensationalist and partisan coverage of earlier periods like yellow journalism. Pioneered by journalists such as Ida B. Wells, Lincoln Steffens, and later Walter Lippmann, objective journalism emphasized verification, fairness, and factuality. Its characteristics include a reliance on evidence-based reporting, balanced coverage, and the separation of news from opinion (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2014). This approach significantly influenced contemporary journalism, fostering trustworthiness and professionalism. Following objective journalism, advocacy, interpretive, and sensationalist journalism emerged to address diverse audience needs, often prioritizing opinion, entertainment, or specialized niches over mere facts. These shifts reflected evolving societal demands for more engaged and diverse media content (Schudson, 2003).
Yellow journalism refers to sensationalist, often exaggerated news practices aimed at attracting readership and increasing sales. It played a critical role in shaping the competitive landscape of late 19th-century newspapers. Publishers like Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst pioneered techniques such as eye-catching headlines, sensational stories, and scandal-driven content to boost circulation (Freeman, 2012). These practices influenced the development of investigative journalism and contributed to media sensationalism, which sometimes compromised accuracy and integrity. Despite criticism, yellow journalism helped establish newspapers as powerful mass media tools, impacting public perceptions & policy debates, exemplified by coverage leading up to the Spanish-American War.
Since the early 20th century, newspaper circulation has declined due to factors like the rise of digital media, changing consumer habits, and the proliferation of online content. The internet has shifted consumer attention toward free and instant news sources, diminishing newspaper sales and advertising revenue (Mitchell et al., 2016). Newspapers have responded by adopting digital strategies such as paywalls, online reporting, and multimedia content to retain readership (Pew Research Center, 2021). Despite these efforts, the industry faces challenges related to revenue sustainability and relevance in an increasingly digital society, prompting ongoing debates about the future of journalism and its democratic functions.
The trend of ownership consolidation in newspapers began with major industry figures seeking to maximize profits by acquiring multiple outlets. This process, driven by profit motives and economies of scale, has resulted in fewer independent and local newspapers, creating concerns regarding media diversity and local accountability (Baker, 2007). Today, large conglomerates like Gannett and Tribune Publishing dominate the landscape, influencing editorial independence and the range of perspectives presented. Such concentration impacts the role of newspapers in fostering an informed electorate, as ownership interests may shape coverage priorities, reduce investigative journalism, and marginalize minority or dissenting voices, undermining the democratic process.
Magazines historically impacted society by offering investigative journalism, in-depth analysis, and cultural commentary that differed from the more immediate news format of newspapers. Their social and cultural influence arose from targeted readerships and content that addressed specific interests, identities, and lifestyles—shaping societal norms and values over time. While newspapers provided daily news, magazines fostered community and shared cultural identity through specialty content, arts, and public affairs, impacting cultural discourse (Bennet, 1990). The rise of general-interest magazines in the early 20th century contributed to mass circulation and public education. Their decline coincided with the proliferation of electronic media but was replaced by specialized magazines that serve niche markets (Pew Research Center, 2013).
The decline of general-interest magazines was driven by changing consumer interests, the fragmentation of audiences, and the rise of television and digital media. The 1950s marked their peak in influence, but factors like the decline in advertising revenue, increased competition from television, and shifting cultural tastes led to a reduction in their dominance. Meanwhile, magazine specialization arose as a response to market segmentation, focusing on niche audiences such as women, professionals, or specific cultural interests (Bennet, 1990). This specialization fostered targeted content and advertising, resulting in a more personalized media landscape but also contributed to the decline of broad, general-interest publications.
Muckraking in magazine journalism, characterized by investigative efforts to expose corruption and social injustices, created a need for magazines to appeal to a broader, more general audience. By tackling societal issues like child labor, political corruption, and corporate malfeasance, muckrakers attracted readerships concerned with reform, fostering a sense of social responsibility and civic engagement (Bristow, 2011). These pioneering efforts helped establish magazines as vehicles for advocacy and public accountability, ultimately influencing the rise of mass-market publications that aimed to educate, inform, and mobilize the public.
The move toward magazine specialization was driven by the desire to target specific demographics and cultural segments, enabling publishers to deliver content tailored to particular interests and identities. As consumer markets fragmented, magazines focused on issues such as fashion, science, politics, or ethnicity, facilitating community-building within niche groups (Pew Research Center, 2013). This trend helped magazines stay relevant amid declining print circulation of general-interest publications but also reinforced cultural divides that could challenge social cohesion. The focus on specialized audiences intensified with advancements in printing and distribution technologies, making niche magazines economically viable (Bennet, 1990).
The term 'cultural minority' evolved from emphasizing racial, ethnic, or social groups marginalized from mainstream society to encompassing a broader range of identities and perspectives. During the 1960s, the term highlighted racial minorities and oppressed groups advocating for civil rights. Over the subsequent decades, it expanded to include women, LGBTQ+ communities, religious minorities, and other marginalized voices, partly through the influence of magazines that provided platforms for alternative narratives (Davis, 2000). Magazines played a crucial role in challenging stereotypes, fostering cultural awareness, and promoting social justice movements, thus restructuring public perceptions and policies regarding minority rights (Herman & Chomsky, 1988).
If magazines primarily focus on corporate advertising that views readers as consumers first and citizens second, this can undermine democratic values by prioritizing commercial interests over the public good. Such framing may lead to the marginalization of critical or dissenting voices, reduce diversity of perspectives, and promote consumerism as a societal goal (McChesney, 2008). The emphasis on advertising revenue can compel magazines to favor content that appeals to consumer desires rather than promoting civic engagement or cultural diversity, threatening the informational and educational functions of media essential for democracy.
In the development of rock and roll in the 1950s, cover music became prominent because it allowed new artists to reinterpret existing hits, making music more accessible and commercially viable. Cover versions enabled record companies to capitalize on popular songs with less risk, accelerating the genre's growth and dissemination (Biamonte, 2015). The rise of cover music also facilitated the crossing of racial and cultural boundaries, contributing to the genre’s widespread appeal and commercial success. It played a significant role in the development of the record industry by creating a broad market for youth-oriented music, shaping the early foundations of commercial rock and roll (White, 2003).
The British Invasion refers to the influx of British bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones into the U.S. music scene during the mid-1960s. This movement dramatically influenced American recording industries by introducing new sounds, production techniques, and cultural perspectives (Vincent, 2003). It challenged American dominance in popular music, spurred innovation, and diversified musical styles. The British Invasion also altered the marketing and branding strategies of U.S. record labels, emphasizing youth culture and rebelliousness, which left a lasting impact on the industry’s development and global reach (Gillett, 1994).
Many alternative music genres—such as punk, new wave, grunge, and indie—become commercially successful because they resonate with audiences seeking authenticity, innovation, and a departure from mainstream standards. Their success often stems from strong subcultural identities, targeted marketing, and digital distribution platforms enabling niche artists to reach wider audiences without traditional industry backing (Bennett, 2002). The industry’s recognition of these genres as viable markets reflects a broader shift toward diversity and experimentation in popular music, fostering cultural innovation and expanding consumer choices (Straw, 1991).
The 1934 Communications Act encouraged monopoly of radio ownership to promote efficient management and prevent interference, reflecting a government interest in stabilizing the burgeoning broadcast industry (Dizard, 1997). However, the Act also established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which aimed to regulate licensing and content, balancing industry interests with public interest considerations. This legislation laid the foundation for future regulations