Ethics: A Brief Introduction

Ethics A Brief Introduction

Ethics: A brief introduction Our objective: Understand the nature of ethics and acquaint ourselves with several ethical theories. Learn to distinguish between moral and non-moral issues. Learn to reason and evaluate issues from an ethical perspective. Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with questions of right and wrong: What makes an action morally good, right? Where do ethics come from? How do we distinguish between moral and non-moral actions? Is ethics simply human creation, or is there some non-human basis? Are there situations in which one can disregard one’s commitment to moral obligations—not to lie or cheat, keep one’s promise?

Ethical theories include consequentialism, non-consequentialism, utilitarianism, duty ethics (Kant), virtue ethics (Aristotle), care ethics (feminist approaches), and social contract theory, which states, “Morality consists in the set of rules, governing behavior, that rational people will accept, on the condition that others accept them as well.”

Utilitarianism asserts that the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by the results they produce. As a consequentialist theory, it emphasizes the importance of outcomes, which can be measured in terms of utility. Maximize human welfare when making decisions, considering benefits and harms to all affected, such as refusing vaccination. The Greatest Happiness Principle states that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness," considering pleasure and the absence of pain as happiness, and pain and privation of pleasure as unhappiness.

Jeremy Bentham, a social reformer under an extreme English legal system, believed that we should look to the total amount of human happiness generated by any human project, with equal consideration for all individuals. John Stuart Mill, a proponent of individual rights and feminist ideas, emphasized that it is better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig, and higher pleasures matter critically, requiring discernment of relative experiences. Both act and rule utilitarianism are variants: act utilitarianism advocates performing the action that maximizes utility in each case, while rule utilitarianism emphasizes following moral rules that generally produce the most benefit.

Peter Singer, a leading preference utilitarian, stresses that our interests are interconnected with others, and we must consider how actions affect everyone involved. Challenges to utilitarianism include problems with calculation, respecting autonomy, maintaining impartiality, dealing with uncertainties, and defining happiness. Despite these challenges, utilitarianism offers clear advantages: it provides definitive answers, is straightforward, and relies on public scrutiny of results. However, it depends heavily on reliable methods to evaluate consequences, which is often difficult in practice.

The welfare system in the United States, funded during the 1930s Great Depression, exemplifies government efforts aligned with utilitarian principles, aiming to assist those in need. A case study involving NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden raises ethical questions about leaking classified information. Did Snowden act ethically in leaking NSA secrets, balancing his duty to national security against defending civil liberties? Is leaking an appropriate method for civil liberties advocacy, or are there alternative avenues? These questions highlight the complex intersection of ethics, law, and public interest.

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Understanding the nature of ethics requires exploring its fundamental questions about moral goodness, rightness, and the origins of moral principles. Ethics as a branch of philosophy investigates the criteria that distinguish morally acceptable actions from those that are not. It questions whether morality is a human construct or if it has an existence independent of human perception, possibly rooted in non-human entities or universal principles. These inquiries serve as a foundation to develop ethical theories that guide moral reasoning and decision-making processes.

Among the numerous ethical theories, consequentialism and non-consequentialism stand out as prominent frameworks. Consequentialism, exemplified by utilitarianism, judges actions based on their outcomes. The core idea is that morally right actions are those that maximize overall happiness or utility. This perspective emphasizes the importance of consequences—benefits and harms—for all individuals affected by a decision. Non-consequentialist theories, such as Kantian duty ethics, focus on the inherent morality of actions themselves, regardless of outcomes. Virtue ethics, rooted in Aristotelian philosophy, emphasizes virtues or moral character as the basis for ethical behavior, while care ethics highlights relationships and caring responsibilities, especially from feminist viewpoints.

Utilitarianism, as a specific consequentialist theory, advocates for actions that promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are pivotal figures in its development. Bentham's approach involved quantifying happiness and advocating for the greatest happiness of the greatest number, while Mill distinguished between higher and lower pleasures, stressing that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to mere sensory satisfaction. Mill’s emphasis on liberty and individual rights reflects an attempt to balance utilitarian calculus with respect for personal autonomy.

The distinction between act and rule utilitarianism provides nuanced approaches within this framework. Act utilitarianism suggests that each individual action should be evaluated based on its ability to produce the most utility, which can sometimes lead to morally questionable decisions if they maximize happiness in specific situations. Conversely, rule utilitarianism supports adhering to moral rules that generally promote utility, prioritizing consistency and fairness over case-by-case analysis. Both perspectives face criticisms, notably difficulties in accurately calculating utility, respecting autonomous decisions, and handling uncertainties associated with predicting outcomes.

Peter Singer’s preference utilitarianism introduces a nuanced view that considers individual preferences and interests, advocating for the inclusion of all affected parties in moral calculations. Singer emphasizes that ethical actions should account for preferences, even if they conflict, aiming to maximize well-being across species and communities. His approach underscores the importance of altruism and the interconnectedness of human interests, advocating for a moral outlook that transcends self-interest.

Despite its strengths, utilitarianism confronts several criticisms. It faces practical challenges in evaluating and comparing utilities, especially in complex situations with numerous variables. Critics argue that utilitarianism can justify morally contentious actions if they lead to overall happiness—such as sacrificing one individual’s rights for the greater good. Additionally, issues related to autonomy and justice highlight potential conflicts with utilitarian calculations. For example, respecting individual rights might sometimes conflict with maximizing happiness, exposing the theory's limitations in addressing individual dignity and justice within collective welfare.

Utilitarian principles have influenced practical policies, as exemplified by the American welfare system. Initiated during the 1930s, these policies aimed to provide social safety nets and improve societal well-being. Welfare programs serve as practical applications of utilitarian ideas, attempting to maximize the overall welfare of citizens through government intervention and resource redistribution. Such policies highlight the relevance of utilitarian ethics in addressing social issues and policy-making.

The ethical dilemma surrounding Edward Snowden’s actions exemplifies real-world conflicts between national security and civil liberties. Snowden’s decision to leak NSA secrets can be seen as an act motivated by a duty to expose government overreach and safeguard public interests. However, critics argue that leaking classified information jeopardizes national security and violates legal obligations. This dilemma underscores a core tension in ethics: whether the moral obligation to protect civil liberties justifies actions that breach confidentiality and national security protocols. Ethical analysis suggests that Snowden’s case raises fundamental questions about the limits of loyalty, transparency, and moral responsibility.

In conclusion, ethics encompasses a diverse array of theories and practical considerations that aim to guide human conduct. Understanding consequentialism and non-consequentialism provides frameworks to evaluate moral decisions, balancing outcomes with inherent moral principles. The practical application of ethical theories in policy, law, and individual actions illustrates their significance in shaping societal norms and decision-making. Ultimately, ethical reasoning involves careful analysis of complex issues, respecting diverse perspectives, and seeking justifiable, morally sound resolutions.

References

• Bentham, J. (1789). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Clarendon Press.
• Mill, J. S. (1863). Utilitarianism. Parker, Son, and Bourn, West Strand.
• Singer, P. (2011). Practical Ethics (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Kant, I. (1785). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by Mary Gregor, 2002. Cambridge University Press.
• Aristotle. (350 B.C.E.). Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W. D. Ross. The Internet Classics Archive.
• Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. University of Chicago Press.
• Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2013). Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford University Press.
• Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press.
• Shaw, W. H. (2016). Business Ethics: Moral Reasoning and Cases. Cengage Learning.
• Mill, J. S. (1863). Utilitarianism. Parker, Son, and Bourn.