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Discuss what learning is and how we learn. Understand the principles of classical conditioning and operant conditioning as well as their differences. Discuss how cognition and observation affect our learning. Objectives include exploring what can be learned and how teaching and changing behaviors are possible through learning. Learning is defined as the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. It involves associative learning (conditioning), where responses are shaped through stimuli, and observational learning, where imitation or modeling influences behavior.

Classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. For example, Pavlov’s dogs began salivating at the sound of a tone associated with food. This process highlights that the US always triggers the UR, whereas the CS triggers the CR after conditioning. Classical conditioning is significant because it demonstrates how organisms adapt to environmental cues and forms the basis for understanding learned associations. Applications include therapies to overcome fears and addictions and understanding how attitudes are formed via associations.

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes learning through consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it. Reinforcers can be positive (adding a desirable stimulus) or negative (removing an aversive stimulus). For example, giving an allowance (positive reinforcement) or removing curfew restrictions (negative reinforcement) strengthen behaviors. Punishment also works with positive (adding an aversive stimulus) or negative (removing a desirable stimulus) forms, designed to reduce undesired behaviors. Different reinforcement schedules, such as fixed-ratio or variable-ratio, influence response rates and response strength.

Reinforcement schedules influence how behaviors are maintained or extinguished. Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid acquisition but also faster extinction, whereas partial or intermittent reinforcement, like variable ratio schedules (e.g., slot machines), produce more resistant behaviors. Practical examples span educational settings, parenting, workplace motivation, sports, and personal goal achievement. Notably, intermittent reinforcement has been shown to produce more persistent behaviors due to its unpredictable nature.

Criticisms of conditioning include concerns regarding its application to human behavior, especially considering biological and cognitive factors. Conditioning assumes a purely nurture-based process, but humans have innate predispositions that constrain what can be learned. As Albert Bandura’s research highlights, cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and motivation significantly influence learning, especially through observational learning. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior modeled by adults, emphasizing the importance of cognition in social learning.

Observational learning is distinct from classical and operant conditioning because it involves watching and imitating behaviors. Media violence, for instance, raises questions about its influence on aggressive tendencies. While some studies suggest media violence can increase aggressive behaviors, individual differences and cognitive mediators such as personal beliefs and social context also play critical roles. Observational learning underscores that our environment and modeling significantly shape behavior, but with the awareness of cognitive mediators, the process becomes more complex and multidimensional.

In summary, learning encompasses multiple processes—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning—that interact with biological predispositions and cognitive functions. These processes collectively facilitate adaptation to our environment, attitude formation, and behavior modification. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for applications ranging from therapy and education to social influence and media consumption. Recognizing the limitations and ethical considerations of conditioning enriches our appreciation of human learning and behavior.

References

• Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Myers, D. G. (2011). Psychology (10th ed.). Worth Publishers.
• Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. Oxford University Press.
• Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. Free Press.
• Chance, P. (2014). Learning and Behavior (7th ed.). Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.
• Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A Theory of Pavlovian Conditioning: Variations in the Effectiveness of Reinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical Conditioning II: Current Research and Theory (pp. 64-99). Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Kandel, E. R., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Peggy's Mammoth Book of Psychology. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.
• Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Psychology and Life (20th ed.). Pearson.
• Thornton, C. (2019). Media Violence and Aggression: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 145(8), 724–754.