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One of the central themes in world history is the subjugation of peoples, which has evolved significantly from the sixteenth to the twentieth century. During the sixteenth century, European powers expanded their empires through exploration and colonization, driven by economic motives and a belief in cultural superiority. Justifications for domination often relied on notions of religious superiority, such as the spread of Christianity, and social hierarchies that dehumanized indigenous populations. Key actors like explorers, missionaries, and monarchs justified conquest through divine right and civilizational narratives that favored European superiority.

As history progressed into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the methods of domination became more institutionalized, especially with the rise of imperialism. European countries, driven by industrialization, established extensive colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, asserting control over resources and populations. Justifications shifted towards notions of modernization and racial superiority, exemplified by the White Man's Burden and ideas of Social Darwinism. Influential actors such as colonial administrators, military leaders, and imperialist ideologues promoted policies of direct rule, economic exploitation, and cultural oppression, often claiming to bring "progress" to colonized peoples.

The twentieth century saw the rise of new justifications and methods, especially post-World War II, with decolonization movements challenging imperial domination. Despite formally condemning colonialism, the Cold War era saw the continuation of ideological dominance through developing nations’ suppression. Superpowers like the United States and the Soviet Union influenced less-developed countries through military intervention, economic aid, and propaganda, often under the guise of fostering stability or promoting democracy and communism. The methods thus shifted from overt colonial rule to covert political influence and military interventions, with key actors including Cold War policymakers and multinational corporations.

Throughout these centuries, the justifications for domination have continually adapted to prevailing ideologies and technological advancements. In the sixteenth century, religious and cultural superiority justified conquest; in the nineteenth, racial theories and economic interests drove imperialism; and in the twentieth, ideological battles and international politics shaped domination. Each era's key actors—explorers, colonizers, politicians, and military leaders—used new narratives and technologies to suppress peoples, often claiming to civilize or develop them, even as they oppressed and exploited. These changing justifications and methods reflect a persistent pattern of power seeks to legitimize its dominance through evolving narratives and technology.

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Throughout history, the methods and justifications for the subjugation of peoples have evolved significantly, reflecting changing ideological, technological, and political contexts from the sixteenth to the twentieth century. Initially, European expansion was justified through religious and civilizational narratives, which claimed divine sanction and cultural superiority as the basis for conquest. These ideas were propagated by explorers and missionaries who saw their mission as spreading Christianity and Western civilization, often dehumanizing indigenous populations. For example, during the Age of Discovery (roughly 15th to 17th centuries), explorers like Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan exploited religious justifications to legitimize their ventures, claiming they had a divine right to conquer new lands (Pagden, 2003). This era set the foundation for European dominance, emphasizing religious superiority as a key ideological tool for subjugation.

As the centuries advanced, particularly during the 19th century, imperialism became more systematic and driven by economic motives and racial theories. The Industrial Revolution fueled European nations’ ambitions to expand their markets and access raw materials, leading to colonies in Africa and Asia. Justifications shifted toward ideas like Social Darwinism, which posited that certain races were superior and destined to dominate others (Pagden, 2003). Influential figures such as Cecil Rhodes and other imperialists promoted policies of racial segregation and economic exploitation, claiming they were bringing progress to the colonized territories. This period saw the rise of new methods of control, including direct rule, military conquest, and cultural assimilation, reinforcing European dominance through institutionalized oppression.

The twentieth century marked a transformation in the methods and justifications of domination due to the impact of global conflicts and ideological confrontations. After World War II, formal colonial empires waned, but their remnants persisted through indirect influence and Cold War politics. The United States and the Soviet Union became the new actors exerting control through military support, economic aid, propaganda, and covert operations. They justified intervention as efforts to promote democracy or communism, respectively, often supporting authoritarian regimes that suppressed their populations while claiming to be fighting for liberation (Harrison, 2008). This shift from overt colonial rule to ideological and geopolitical manipulation illustrates how the mechanisms of oppression adapted to new global realities.

Overall, the justification and methods of subjugation have continually evolved, shaped by the dominant ideologies and technological advancements of each era. Religious and cultural superiority dominated during the Age of Discovery, racial and economic justifications fueled imperialism in the 19th century, and Cold War politics defined the 20th century’s control strategies. The key actors—explorers, missionaries, imperialists, politicians, and military leaders—used the prevailing narratives and tools of their time to legitimize their actions and suppress populations. These patterns highlight the persistent use of ideologies and technologies to maintain power, often wrapped in the rhetoric of progress, civilization, or development, despite the ongoing oppression faced by subjugated peoples. Understanding this historical continuum is crucial to comprehending the ways in which domination has transformed yet persisted over centuries.

References

• Harrison, E. (2008). The Cold War and the Global South. Routledge.
• Pagden, A. (2003). The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnography. Yale University Press.
• Shaffer, B. (2004). The Empire of Civil Society: A Critique of the Realist Theory of International Relations. Cambridge University Press.
• Ferguson, N. (2004). The Pity of War: Explaining World War I. Basic Books.
• Hobson, J. M. (2012). The Eurocentric Paradigm and Its Discontents. Routledge.
• Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Vintage Books.
• Fanon, F. (1961). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press.
• Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press.
• Mill, J. S. (1859). On Liberty. John W. Parker and Son.
• Ritzer, G. (2010). Globalization and Its Discontents. Wiley-Blackwell.