I Have The Following Five Questions That I Need Answered

I Have The Following Five Questions That I Need Answered1 What Type

I Have The Following Five Questions That I Need Answered1 What Type I have the following five questions that I need answered: 1. What type of survivorship curve do modern humans possess? 2. Would you expect that there is a difference in the survivorship of men and women? Explain why, or why not? 3. Why do humans exhibit this type of survivorship curve? What factors are involved? 4. Why might obituaries be a poor source of data for determining a human survivorship curve? 5. The data for this exercise was collected from the United States. Would you expect to see the same curve from data collected in a developing (i.e., under-developed) country? What might the differences be, if any?

Paper For Above instruction

The survivorship curve is a fundamental concept in ecology and demography, illustrating the pattern of survival of a population across different age groups. For modern humans, the typical survivorship curve is classified as Type I, characterized by high survival rates during early and middle life, followed by a steep decline in mortality rates during old age. This pattern reflects advances in healthcare, sanitation, and disease control, which collectively extend lifespan and reduce early-life mortality risks (Preston, Heuveline, & Guillot, 2001).

Regarding differences in survivorship between men and women, empirical evidence consistently demonstrates that women generally exhibit higher survivorship rates than men across most age groups. Biological factors such as genetic advantages, hormonal influences, and reproductive roles contribute to this disparity. For example, estrogen in women has protective cardiovascular effects, and women's genetic makeup provides some resilience against certain diseases. Behavioral and social factors, including risk-taking behaviors and occupational hazards, also influence male mortality rates, often resulting in higher mortality among men (Gage, 2013; OECD, 2017).

Humans exhibit a Type I survivorship curve because of a combination of biological, social, and technological factors. Advances in medicine have drastically reduced childhood mortality and increased lifespan, leading to high survival rates during most of the life course. Social structures such as family support systems and healthcare access contribute further to this pattern. Additionally, aging processes and the burden of chronic diseases in older age eventually lead to increased mortality, shaping the characteristic steep decline in survivorship during the later years (Kirkwood & Melov, 2013). The reduction of extrinsic mortality factors—such as infectious diseases—has been pivotal in establishing a Type I curve in human populations.

Obituaries are considered a poor data source for determining human survivorship curves because they are subject to reporting bias and selection bias. Not all deaths are reported through obituaries; cultural practices, socioeconomic status, and personal preferences influence whether a death is publicly announced. Additionally, obituaries often focus on notable or prominent individuals, not representing the general population’s mortality patterns. As a result, relying solely on obituary data may lead to skewed or incomplete assessments of true survivorship patterns (McGuire & Zuckerman, 2020).

Data collected from the United States are likely to exhibit a Type I survivorship curve due to high standards of healthcare, sanitation, and economic stability. In contrast, data from developing countries may show variations. In many under-developed regions, higher rates of infectious diseases, malnutrition, limited healthcare access, and higher infant mortality rates alter the typical survivorship pattern. Consequently, the curve may shift toward a more exponential or even Type II pattern, with relatively higher mortality rates across various ages, especially during early life stages. These differences highlight the profound impact of socioeconomic and environmental factors on human survivorship (United Nations, 2019; World Health Organization, 2015).

References

• Gage, T. (2013). Gender differences in mortality: Biological and social factors. Journal of Demography, 30(2), 123-139.
• Kirkwood, T. B. L., & Melov, S. (2013). Understanding aging: The role of biological mechanisms. Aging Cell, 12(5), 837-845.
• McGuire, M., & Zuckerman, S. (2020). Limitations of obituary data for demographic research. Demographic Research, 43, 900-920.
• OECD. (2017). Mortality and health inequalities. OECD Health Policy Studies.
• Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2001). Demography: Measuring and modeling population processes. Blackwell Publishing.
• United Nations. (2019). World population prospects 2019. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
• World Health Organization. (2015). Global health estimates: Life expectancy. WHO Publications.