Introduction To Criminology Chapter 7: Social Structure Theo

Introduction To Criminology1chapter 7social Structure Theories

This chapter focuses on the early development of social structure theory and different strain models of crime. Social structure theories differ from other theories because they don't consider biological or psychological differences among individuals; instead, they suggest crime is caused by the way societies are organized. These theories emphasize group differences at the macro level rather than individual differences. Developmentally, Emile Durkheim's model of societal evolution from mechanical to organic societies influenced these theories, illustrating how changes in social cohesion and division of labor impact social bonds and norms. Durkheim argued that rapid societal change can weaken social regulation, leading to phenomena like anomie, which increases social problems, including crime.

Strain theories primarily focus on social frustration as the central cause of criminal behavior. Merton’s Strain Theory, influenced by Durkheim’s concept of anomie, suggests that society’s emphasis on achieving the American Dream creates a disjunction between goals and means for many individuals. When individuals are unable to attain success legitimately, they experience strain, which may lead them to adapt in various ways, including innovation, rebellion, ritualism, retreatism, or conformity. Among these, innovation, rebellion, and retreatism are most associated with criminal activity.

Robert Cohen expanded on Merton’s work by exploring gang formation among lower-class youth. He argued that failure in school, due to class-based disadvantages and socialization deficits, leads to a rejection of middle-class values and the formation of gangs as alternative social groups. Cloward and Ohlin then introduced the Theory of Differential Opportunity, emphasizing how neighborhood opportunities influence gang types—criminal, conflict, or retreatist gangs—depending on the local social structure.

Later, Agnew’s General Strain Theory broadened the concept of strain by including additional stressors such as presentation of noxious stimuli and removal of positive stimuli. It posits that these stressors generate feelings of anger, which can predispose individuals to criminal behavior if mechanisms for healthy coping are lacking. The theory underscores the importance of social and personal coping strategies in preventing criminal responses to stress.

Overall, social structure and strain theories underline the significance of societal organization, socioeconomic status, and environmental factors in understanding criminal behavior. They suggest that addressing social inequalities, improving community opportunities, and fostering healthy coping mechanisms are essential strategies for crime prevention.

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Social structure theories of crime and strain models provide a macro-level perspective on the origins of criminal behavior, emphasizing the influence of societal organization, economic disparity, and social norms. These theories fundamentally challenge individual-focused explanations by asserting that structural conditions foster environments conducive to crime, primarily through the breakdown of social cohesion, the weakening of social controls, and the frustration stemming from blocked opportunities.

Durkheim’s theory of societal evolution introduces the foundational concept of social cohesion and disintegration. In primitive mechanical societies, shared norms and values—the collective conscience—maintain social order. As societies transition toward organic solidarity through increased division of labor, the dissolution of shared norms and the emergence of anomie—social normlessness—become prevalent, especially during rapid societal changes. Durkheim’s insights suggest that such disruptions weaken social bonds and foster a climate where antisocial behavior, including crime, flourishes. Empirical research corroborates this view; areas with stark economic disparities and social disorganization often exhibit higher crime rates, aligning with Durkheim’s propositions (Sampson & Groves, 1989).

Merton’s strain theory further elaborates that societal emphasis on the goal of economic success—the American Dream—creates a disparity between cultural aspirations and legitimate means of achievement. This disequilibrium, or anomie, leads individuals who cannot attain success legitimately to adapt in various ways, including innovation—i.e., turning to crime. Merton identified five adaptations: conformity, ritualism, innovation, retreatism, and rebellion. Innovators, rebels, and retreatists are most prone to criminality, driven by their responses to blocked opportunities and feelings of strain (Merton, 1938). This model highlights how social structures, especially economic inequalities, shape individual behavior, thus emphasizing the importance of social opportunity structures in crime causation.

Building on Merton’s framework, Cohen’s theory of gang formation addresses the socio-psychological mechanisms underlying delinquency. He argued that lower-class youth experience failure in mainstream institutions like schools because these institutions are based on middle-class norms. The failure to conform to these norms fosters rejection of middle-class values and fosters the formation of delinquent gangs—groups that provide alternative social identities and opportunities for success (Cohen, 1955). Cohen also distinguished between the ‘delinquent boy’ and the ‘corner boy’, emphasizing different responses to strain based on socialized expectations and limited opportunities.

Cloward and Ohlin extended the discussion by proposing the Theory of Differential Opportunity, which posits that variations in neighborhood opportunity structures influence delinquent behavior. They argued that criminal, conflict, and retreatist gangs form in neighborhoods with differing levels of access to illegitimate opportunities. Criminal gangs are more prevalent in areas with established illegal enterprise, conflict gangs in areas with high social disorganization, and retreatist gangs where legitimate and illegitimate opportunities are scarce (Cloward & Ohlin, 1960). This theory emphasizes the importance of neighborhood contexts and social opportunities in shaping gang behavior and crime patterns.

Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST) expanded the scope of strain theories by integrating various sources of stress beyond economic success. GST identifies three primary sources of strain: the inability to achieve positively valued goals, the presentation of noxious stimuli, and the removal of positively valued stimuli. These stressors often produce negative emotions like anger and frustration, which can lead to criminal behavior if individuals lack adaptive coping mechanisms. Agnew argued that personal and social resources, social support, and coping strategies mediate the relationship between strain and crime (Agnew, 1992). The theory underscores the importance of addressing stress and fostering resilience to prevent criminal responses.

Policy implications of social structure and strain theories include community-based interventions aimed at reducing social inequality, improving educational and employment opportunities, and fostering positive social bonds. Programs that enhance social cohesion, provide legitimate avenues for success, and teach adaptive coping mechanisms are crucial for crime reduction. These approaches recognize crime as a structural issue rooted in societal disparities rather than merely individual moral failings. Empirical studies support that alleviating neighborhood disorganization and economic deprivation correlates with lower crime rates (Sampson et al., 1997).

In conclusion, social structure and strain theories shift the focus of criminology from individual pathology to societal organization. They highlight that crime results from systemic issues like inequality, social disorganization, and blocked opportunities. Addressing these root causes through comprehensive social policies is essential for creating safer communities and reducing crime rates.

References

• Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-87.
• Cloward, R., & Ohlin, L. E. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity: A theory of delinquent gangs. Free Press.
• Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. Free Press.
• Durkheim, E. (1893). The division of labor in society. Free Press.
• Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.
• Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social-disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94(4), 774-802.
• Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918-924.