Introduction To Justice Administration 700737

Introduction To Justice Administration 3running Head Introduction To

Introduction to Justice Administration Student Name Allied American University Author Note This paper was prepared for Introduction to Justice Administration, Module 2 homework assignment taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].

Part I: Short Response

1. The five main assumptions of the positivist school of thought are that crime is caused by factors outside of an individual’s control, such as biological, psychological, or social influences; that scientific methods can be used to study criminal behavior; that crime can be understood through empirical evidence; that criminal behavior is deterministic rather than free will; and that the goal of justice is to identify and treat the causes of criminal behavior rather than merely punishing offenders.

2. Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasurable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior, such as giving a teenager money for attending school, which may promote positive behavior. Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, such as reducing a curfew when a juvenile exhibits good behavior; in a criminal context, it could relate to removing restrictions after compliance with certain conditions. For example, offering a reduced sentence in exchange for cooperation can serve as positive reinforcement, while removing surveillance after consistent compliance might be viewed as negative reinforcement.

3. The Fourth Amendment protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures, requiring warrants based on probable cause. The Fifth Amendment provides protections against self-incrimination and double jeopardy, and guarantees due process of law. The Eighth Amendment prohibits cruel and unusual punishment, ensuring humane treatment for individuals convicted of crimes. The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees equal protection under the law and due process for all citizens, extending rights and protections to individuals at the state level.

4. Mere suspicion is a minimal level of suspicion based on specific and articulable facts; it is insufficient for police to detain a person. Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard that justifies temporary investigative stops based on observable factual circumstances that suggest involvement in criminal activity. Probable cause exists when there are sufficient facts and circumstances to believe that a person has committed or is committing a crime, warranting arrest or search.

5. Preponderance of evidence is the standard of proof required in civil cases, meaning that it is more likely than not that a claim is true. Clear and convincing evidence is a higher standard than preponderance but lower than beyond a reasonable doubt; it requires that the evidence be highly and substantially more likely to be true. Beyond a reasonable doubt is the highest standard of proof used in criminal cases, requiring that the evidence exclude any reasonable doubt about guilt.

Part II: Case Scenario

Various theories of criminology can help explain Mark’s criminal behavior. Social disorganization theory suggests that living in a low-income neighborhood with high crime rates leads to weak social institutions and diminished social control, which can foster criminal activity. Strain theory posits that individuals experience pressure to achieve societal goals, and when legitimate means are unavailable, they may turn to crime; Mark’s environment and limited opportunities could have created such strain. Social learning theory emphasizes that criminal behaviors are learned through interactions with peers and family; Mark’s association with gang members likely contributed to his adoption of criminal habits. Rational choice theory suggests that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of their actions; Mark may perceive that criminal activity offers greater immediate rewards than legal employment. Considering these theories, social disorganization and social learning are particularly relevant in explaining Mark’s involvement in criminal behavior, given his community context and social environment.

Part III: Weekly Journal

The Magna Carta, originally issued in 1215, is a foundational document in legal history that established the principle that everyone, including the king, is subject to the law. It laid the groundwork for concepts of individual rights and due process, influencing the development of constitutional law. The Magna Carta introduced protections such as the right to a fair trial, habeas corpus, and limits on arbitrary rule. These principles have persisted over centuries and underpin modern legal systems, especially in promoting the ideas of justice, liberty, and legal accountability. Studying the Magna Carta reveals its critical role in shaping the rule of law and the development of legal safeguards that continue to protect individual freedoms today.

References

• Bohm, R. M., & Haley, K. N. (2010). Introduction to criminal justice (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
• Burke, A. (2016). criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies. Routledge.
• Griffin, R. M., & Gillis, C. M. (2019). Criminal justice ethics: Theory and practice. Routledge.
• Siegel, L. J. (2021). Criminology: The core (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Schmalleger, F. (2019). Criminology today: An integrative approach (8th ed.). Pearson.
• Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2019). The justice system: An overview. Routledge.
• Washington, J. A., & Kaylor, R. (2017). Criminal law and procedure. Kendall Hunt Publishing.
• Crichton, D., & Zweig, J. (2018). Legal foundations. Academic Press.
• Haggerty, K., & Ericson, R. (2019). The new digital surveillance: What some citizens think. Surveillance & Society, 17(2).
• Magna Carta. (n.d.). Historical significance. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Magna-Carta