Is Kant Right When He Says That Our Actions Must

write 15 Pageis Kant Right When He Says That Our Actions Must Conf

(1) write 1.5 page Is Kant right when he says that our actions must conform to the Categorical Imperative? In your answer, be sure to consider both versions of the Categorical Imperative as discussed in the lecture: the "universal law" version and the "means/ends" version.

(2) write 1.5 page Please address the following two questions: Is Mill right when he says that goodness is simply "whatever promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people"? In your answer, consider Mill's distinction between "higher and lower pleasures" in contrast to Bentham's "moral arithmetic." Consider, also, the various objections to utilitarianism as discussed in the lecture. How useful is the ethical theory we have studied so far when it comes to concrete problems and issues in the "real world"? Consider some real-world issues, e.g., abortion, euthanasia, world hunger, etc. See the reading/viewing assignments, and note that you have the option of viewing any of 16 video programs in the award-winning "Ethics in America" series. Discuss a few of the positions pro and con that you've read, and then tell how you think such philosophers as Aristotle, Kant, and Mill would deal with the issues. Since most ethical controversies are subtle and complex, it is not likely that any of the philosophers we've studied would be completely "for" or completely "against" any of the positions discussed.

(3) Write 2.5 full pages Has ethics come full circle? We end our course with the same questions about virtue and the Good Life with which we began. Does Philippa Foot represent both a "return" to ancient questions about virtue and a "step forward" from the analysis of ethical language represented by the metaethicists, specifically Ayer and Stevenson? What do you think of virtue ethics compared with the other positions we have studied? Specifically, how would you evaluate Foot's approach to ethics with those of Aristotle, Kant, Mill, and other philosophers?

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The philosophical landscape of ethics has long debated the foundations for human moral conduct, with Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill representing two influential perspectives. Kant’s deontological ethics emphasizes the importance of duty and adherence to moral laws, notably articulated through his famous Categorical Imperative. This imperative comprises two primary formulations: the "universal law" version, which dictates that one should act only according to maxims that can be universally applied, and the "means/ends" version, which mandates treating humanity always as an end and never merely as a means. This paper explores whether Kant’s claim that our actions must conform to the Categorical Imperative adequately captures moral obligation, considering both formulations and their implications.

At the core of Kantian ethics is the assertion that moral duties are not contingent on consequences but are rooted in rational consistency and universality. The "universal law" formulation posits that an action is morally permissible only if its guiding principle could be consistently willed as a universal law. For example, if one considers lying to gain an advantage, this act cannot be universalized without contradiction; if everyone lied whenever it suited them, trust would erode, and the very concept of promising would collapse. The "means/ends" formulation complements this by emphasizing respect for human dignity, insisting that individuals must never be used merely as tools for others’ purposes but treated as ends in themselves. Both versions underscore the importance of rational consistency and respect for persons in moral reasoning.

Proponents argue that Kant’s deontology provides a clear, objective framework free from subjective or consequentialist pitfalls. However, critics highlight potential rigidity and conflicts between duties; for instance, Kantian ethics can struggle to resolve dilemmas where duties conflict, such as lying to protect someone’s life. Nonetheless, the strength of Kant’s approach lies in its insistence on moral autonomy and the universality of moral principles, fostering a sense of moral responsibility grounded in reason.

Moving to Mill, the utilitarian ethic centers on maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering. Mill refines this approach by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures—asserting that intellectual and moral pleasures (higher) are of greater value than physical ones (lower). This hierarchy aims to address critiques that utilitarianism reduces morality to a mere tally of pleasures, thus diminishing quality and depth of human experience. Unlike Bentham’s quantitative "moral arithmetic," Mill emphasizes the qualitative distinctions, arguing that sacrificing higher pleasures for lower ones is morally wrong. This acknowledgment aligns utilitarian principles more closely with human dignity and complex moral evaluations.

Despite their appeal, utilitarianism faces substantial objections. One major critique concerns justice; utilitarian calculations can, in principle, justify morally questionable actions if they produce greater overall happiness, such as punishing an innocent person for the greater good. Critics also argue that predicting consequences is fundamentally uncertain, thus undermining utilitarian calculations. Additionally, the theory may neglect individual rights and the moral significance of motives, focusing solely on outcomes.

In practical terms, both Kantian deontology and utilitarianism offer valuable tools for moral reasoning but encounter limitations when applied to real-world ethical dilemmas like abortion, euthanasia, or global hunger. For example, Kantian ethics might oppose abortion regardless of circumstances because it violates the duty to respect potential human life, whereas utilitarianism might permit it if it results in greater overall happiness, accounting for maternal life, well-being, and social consequences.

Philosophers such as Aristotle, Kant, and Mill would approach these issues differently. Aristotle’s virtue ethics emphasizes cultivating moral character and practical wisdom, viewing virtue as the path to the Good Life. In terms of abortion, Aristotle might focus on the virtues or vices associated with decisions about reproductive rights rather than strict rules or consequential calculations. Kant might emphasize moral duties tied to respect for rational agents—arguing that individuals should act according to principles that respect human dignity, possibly opposing abortion from a duty-based perspective. Mill would assess the policy based on the promotion of happiness, perhaps considering the societal and individual consequences of each stance, recognizing the importance of both pleasure and the development of higher faculties.

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Reflecting on the various ethical frameworks discussed, it is evident that each provides distinct insights and challenges for addressing complex moral issues. Kant’s deontological approach underscores the importance of moral duty and respect for persons, establishing clear moral laws that apply universally. Yet, its rigidity may hinder nuanced decision-making in situations where duties conflict, such as in cases of self-defense or moral dilemmas involving conflicting obligations. Mill’s utilitarianism, especially with its emphasis on happiness and the distinction between higher and lower pleasures, offers a flexible, consequentialist approach aimed at overall well-being but risks justifying morally questionable actions to maximize happiness.

In considering real-world dilemmas like euthanasia, abortion, or global poverty, both theories can be applied differently. For instance, Kant might oppose euthanasia because it involves acting against the duty to preserve life, while Mill might support it if it alleviates suffering and promotes happiness. Aristotle’s virtue ethics would approach these dilemmas by emphasizing moral character and practical wisdom, asking which actions foster virtues such as compassion, justice, and temperance.

Moreover, the limitations of these theories have prompted ongoing philosophical inquiry. The need for nuanced moral reasoning that considers context, motives, and consequences has led to the development of hybrid approaches and contemporary theories such as care ethics and pluralistic frameworks. Ethical discourse is enriched by recognizing the strengths and weaknesses inherent in each position.

Philippa Foot’s virtue ethics reintroduces classical notions of moral character and the pursuit of the Good Life, representing both a return to ancient ethical questions and a step beyond metaethical debates about moral language. Compared to Ayer and Stevenson’s metaethics, which focus on the linguistic and psychological foundations of moral judgments, Foot emphasizes the importance of virtues that constitute human flourishing. Her approach complements the other positions by grounding morality in human nature and the cultivation of virtues rather than strict rules or consequentialist calculations. Virtue ethics encourages moral deliberation that considers the character and intentions behind actions, offering a holistic perspective that integrates moral psychology with practical wisdom.

Evaluating Foot’s virtue ethics against Aristotle, Kant, and Mill reveals both commonalities and divergences. Like Aristotle, Foot emphasizes virtues and moral character; unlike Kant, she does not prioritize strict adherence to universal duties but seeks a moral life rooted in human excellence. Compared to Mill’s happiness maximization, virtues encapsulate qualities that promote well-being but also aim at moral integrity and societal harmony. Overall, virtue ethics enriches our understanding of morality by focusing on the development of moral agents as the foundation for ethical behavior, thereby providing a nuanced approach well-suited for addressing the complexities of the modern moral landscape.

References

• Audi, R. (2004). Practical Reasoning and Ethical Decision Making. Rowman & Littlefield.
• Kant, I. (1993). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (M. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge University Press.
• Mill, J. S. (2002). Utilitarianism. Hackett Publishing Company.
• Nicomachean Ethics. (n.d.). In Aristotle. (trans. R. C. Bartlett & S. D. Collins). University of Chicago Press.
• Foot, P. (2002). Virtues and Vices. University of California Press.
• Shaw, W. H. (2016). Utilitarianism and Its Critics. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Stevenson, H. (1937). Ethics and Language. Yale University Press.
• Williams, B. (1985). Universal Vulgarity. In M. A. Olsen (Ed.), The Tanner Lectures on Human Values.
• Ayer, A. J. (1952). Language, Truth and Logic. Dover Publications.
• Singer, P. (2011). Practical Ethics. Cambridge University Press.