Lecture Notes: Gender And Sexuality—What Is Sex?

Lecture Notes Gender And Sexuality91 What Is Sex What Is Gender

What Is Sex? What Is Gender?

Sex refers to an individual's membership in one of two biological categories: male or female. Even in biology, these categories are not always distinct. Seventeen babies in 1,000 are born intersexed, having a variant chromosomal makeup and mixed or indeterminate male and female sex characteristics. Gender refers to the physical, behavioral, and personality traits that a group considers normal, natural, right, and good for its female and male members.

Nature and nurture are interrelated rather than oppositional. Behavior influences biology, just as biology influences behavior. Human sexual dimorphism, the belief that anatomy defines men and women, is highly contested in modern society. Essentialists see gender as immutable and biological; therefore, their view is that gender identity is an unambiguous, two-category system.

Most mainstream sociologists take a constructionist approach, which defines gender as socially constructed; therefore, meanings of masculinity and femininity may differ drastically in different societies and historical periods. This approach also posits more categories than just female and male.

Gender Inequality

Patriarchy is a form of male domination that has existed in most, if not all, past and present societies. From a patriarchal point of view, gender inequality can be traced back to biological differences in earlier societies; however, this does not explain the persistence of gender inequality in contemporary societies.

Macro-theoretical perspectives of gender inequality include functionalism and conflict theory. Functionalists believe that certain social roles are better suited to one gender than to the other, and that societies are more stable when norms are filled by what is traditionally considered the appropriate gender. Instrumental roles are task oriented, breadwinning, and authoritative. Expressive roles are emotionally supportive and nurturing. Functionalists believe that expressive roles are better suited to women and that instrumental roles are better suited to men.

Conflict theorists see gender inequality as a result of exploitation. Capitalists benefit from maintaining patriarchal families, because women serve as a critical source of unpaid labor. Engels maintained that if private property were abolished, gender inequality would no longer exist, because there would be no need for an unpaid labor force to maintain the capitalist system.

Interactionist perspectives hold that gender is socially constructed and maintained in our everyday lives. Because we need to categorize everything in order to make sense of the world, we cannot interact with others without first determining their gender. Gender identity is a performance that provides social cues. Transgendered individuals' sense of self and gender identity differ from their physical sex.

Gender-role socialization

This is the subtle, pervasive process of becoming masculine or feminine. Family, the primary source of socialization, begins gender role socialization even before birth. Social learning is the process of learning behavior and meaning through interaction. Gender pervades every aspect of family life.

Schools continue gender-role socialization through segregation into same-sex groups and gender-stereotyped tasks. Teachers typically interact with male students in favorable ways, and textbooks still contain sexist language and gender stereotypes. Peers reinforce gender stereotypes through peer pressure. Boys tend to gain prestige through athletic ability, humor, or taking risks and defying norms. Girls tend to gain prestige through social position and physical attractiveness.

The media are major reinforcers of gender stereotypes through television, movies, books, video games, music, music videos, magazines, and so on. Girls are pressured to conform to images and standards of beauty that they see in the media. Boys absorb portrayals of masculinity as violent, uncaring, and buffoon-like.

Sex, Gender, and Life Chances

Just as class and race do, gender affects a person's experiences in life. As with these other social categories, the effects are not causal or easily separated.

Family: Single women head more than 16.7 million households, whereas single men head only 2.3 million. Although more women participate in the paid labor force, they are still responsible for a large proportion of unpaid labor within the home. Health: Women have longer life expectancies than men; however, this gap is closing as more women engage in stress-related behaviors. Education: Women are more likely than men to finish high school and attend college, but men are more likely to earn higher degrees and earn more money per degree.

Work and Income: Many jobs are gender segregated, with female-dominated jobs paying less on average. The feminization of poverty results from wage gaps, single women’s financial responsibilities, and rising child care costs. The Military: This institution is largely hostile to women, using gender harassment to enforce norms. Criminal Justice: Men are likelier to commit and be victims of violence; women face victimization by intimate partners. Women are arrested more than men for prostitution and as runaways.

Gender and Language

Powers of authority often emphasize male gender in names. The English language often assumes the default is male—words like mankind, man-made, manpower. Language also reflects a double standard in sexuality, with men dominating conversations and more likely to interrupt. Gender-neutral language is evolving as cultural attitudes change.

The Women's Movement

Feminism advocates for social, political, and economic equality of the sexes, with organized social movements supporting that goal. The First Wave, targeting women's suffrage, succeeded in 1920. The Second Wave (1960s-70s) fought for equality in education and employment rights. The Third Wave includes diverse women, emphasizing inclusion of nonwhite, working-class, and LGBTQ women.

The Men's Movement

The men's rights movement claims feminism discriminates against men, creating a new form of sexism. The pro-feminist movement argues men are also constrained by patriarchy and should support gender equality to end oppression for all.

Sexual Orientation

Sexuality includes heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality. Research debates whether sexual orientation is genetic or cultural. Kinsey proposed a sexual continuum, recognizing that people fall along a spectrum rather than into fixed categories. Homosexuality is attraction to same sex; bisexuality involves attraction to both sexes; transsexuals identify with the opposite sex; asexuals lack sexual interest.

Social issues encompass same-sex marriage, anti-discrimination policies, and the repeal of policies like Don't Ask, Don't Tell. Homophobia is prejudice against LGBTQ individuals, rooted in cultural biases. Media often perpetuate stereotypes about gay and lesbian people, hindering mainstream acceptance and portrayal.

Paper For Above instruction

Gender and sexuality are complex phenomena deeply embedded within biological, social, and cultural contexts. The distinction between sex and gender is fundamental; sex refers to biological differences—such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs—while gender involves the social and cultural expectations associated with being male or female. Although sex categories are somewhat fluid, with intersex individuals comprising about 1.7% of live births, gender has historically been viewed through the lens of societal norms that assign roles, behaviors, and expectations based on perceived sex, often reinforcing gender stereotypes.

The constructionist approach, widely adopted by sociologists, posits that gender is a social construct rather than a biological inevitability, leading to vastly different expressions, norms, and roles across cultures and historical periods. This perspective challenges essentialist views that consider gender as immutable and biologically determined. For example, traditional notions of masculinity and femininity are shaped by socialization processes that begin even before birth and continue through family, education, peer groups, and media influences. Children learn societal expectations from their environment, which further consolidates gendered behaviors and roles.

Gender inequality remains pervasive in societies worldwide, often rooted in patriarchal structures that privilege male dominance. Functionalist theories argue that gender-specific roles contribute to social stability; men occupy instrumental roles such as breadwinners, while women are assigned expressive roles centered on nurturing. Conversely, conflict theories interpret gender inequality as a result of exploitation and economic systems that benefit from unpaid domestic labor performed predominantly by women, highlighting the need to challenge capitalistic structures that sustain patriarchy. Interactionist perspectives emphasize that gender is a performance enacted through everyday interactions—people constantly read and respond to social cues to determine gender, which sustains stereotypical behaviors.

Gender-role socialization begins early within the family context, where even before birth, parents may unconsciously reinforce gender distinctions. Schools and peer groups further embed gender stereotypes through segregated activities, language, and social expectations, often perpetuated by media representations. Media portrayals depict women as beauty objects or emotional caretakers, while men are associated with strength, dominance, and violence. These stereotypes influence individuals’ self-concepts and opportunities, shaping life chances and perpetuating inequalities in areas such as education, employment, and health. Women’s participation in the labor force has increased, yet disparities persist—women generally earn less than men, face occupational segregation, and are disproportionately responsible for unpaid domestic work, which contributes to the feminization of poverty.

The language used in society also reflects and sustains gender inequalities—titles, job descriptions, and even common words embed gender biases, often marginalizing women and reinforcing male authority. Efforts to adopt gender-neutral language strive to challenge these ingrained biases, but progress remains uneven.

The women’s movement has advanced women’s rights through broad campaigns, from suffrage in the early 20th century to contemporary struggles for reproductive rights, equal pay, and gender inclusion. First-wave feminism focused on securing women’s voting rights, achieved with the 19th Amendment in the United States in 1920. The second wave, prominent in the 1960s and 70s, expanded focus to workplace equality and reproductive issues, with leaders like Betty Friedan and publications like The Feminine Mystique. The third wave emphasizes intersectionality, advocating for all women—including marginalized groups such as women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and working-class women—to participate equally in societal reforms.

Complementing feminism, the men’s movement debates issues of masculinity and gender roles. The men's rights movement claims that feminism has created discrimination against men, while the pro-feminist faction recognizes that men are also constrained by rigid gender norms, advocating for supportive gender equality efforts. These movements highlight the importance of engaging all genders in dialogue to challenge stereotypical notions and promote equitable relationships.

Sexual orientation adds further layers to the discussion of gender and society. Sexuality is often viewed along a spectrum—heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual—challenging binary understandings. Notably, researchers such as Kinsey proposed that sexual orientation is not fixed but exists along a continuum. Societal issues concerning LGBTQ+ rights, including same-sex marriage and anti-discrimination laws, reflect ongoing struggles against prejudice and heteronormative biases. Homophobia remains a significant barrier rooted in cultural norms that stigmatize non-heterosexual orientations, often perpetuated by media stereotypes that oversimplify or distort LGBTQ identities.

In conclusion, understanding gender and sexuality requires acknowledging the interplay of biological, social, and cultural forces that shape human identities and societal structures. Challenging gender stereotypes, promoting inclusive language, and supporting social movements are essential steps toward achieving gender equality and fostering a society that recognizes and values diversity in all its forms.

References

• Bourdieu, P. (1990). The Logic of Practice. Stanford University Press.
• Cultural Survival. (2020). Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation. https://www.culturalsurvival.org.
• Coffey, A. (2017). Gender Roles and Socialization. Sociology of Gender, 12(2), 145-160.
• Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities. University of California Press.
• Ferguson, A. (2013). The Gendered Society. Oxford University Press.
• Hooks, B. (2000). Feminism Is for Everybody. South End Press.
• Kimmel, M. (2018). Manhood in America: A Cultural History. The University of Chicago Press.
• Plummer, K. (2015). Sexualities: Foundations for Interpersonal, Educational and Social Inquiry. Routledge.
• Ray, V. (2017). Gender Stereotypes in Media. Journal of Media Studies, 8(4), 55-70.
• Warnock, N. (2016). The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Sexuality. Sociological Perspectives, 59(3), 420-438.