Major Problems In American Environmental History

Major Problems In American Enviromental Historyamericas

Readings include chapters from "Major Problems in American Environmental History," focusing on America’s land and people during the early republic and early nineteenth century. The assignment involves writing a 1-2 page response to one or more provided questions, incorporating at least two direct quotes from the texts to support your points. The questions explore themes such as American identity in the 1780s, the two economies of early 19th-century America and their environmental impacts, African American slave women's perspectives on nature, and interpretations of Hudson River School paintings as reflections of societal changes during that period. The goal is to analyze these topics critically, linking textual evidence with historical context, and preparing for class discussion.

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The formative years of the United States, especially the 1780s, were characterized by a distinct sense of American identity, as articulated by figures like Crèvecouer and Jefferson. Both emphasized the unique qualities of Americans, with a particular focus on self-reliance, independence, and a close relationship with the land. Crèvecouer, in his reflections, describes Americans as inherently pragmatic and rooted in the rural landscape, highlighting the importance of farming as a cornerstone of American life. Jefferson, similarly, revered the agrarian ideal, envisioning an America where independent farmers embodied virtue and democratic principles. As Jefferson famously asserted, “The small landholders are the chosen people of God” (Jefferson, 1801), underscoring the spiritual and societal value placed on farming. These perspectives collectively define a “American” way of life that celebrates independence, agriculture, and a close bond with nature, distinguishing it from European industrial and urban models.

Merchant’s analysis of the early nineteenth century introduces the concept of the “two economies” that coexisted in America: the subsistence, rural economy centered around farming and resource extraction, and the emerging market-based economy driven by industrialization, commerce, and technological innovation. The rural economy relied heavily on the environment, interacting with it through practices such as farming, timber harvesting, and mineral extraction. This economy was largely sustainable, with its development deeply integrated into local ecosystems, but also vulnerable to environmental degradation if resources were overused. Conversely, the market economy prioritized growth, profit, and expansion, often exploiting natural resources at an unsustainable pace to meet industrial and urban demands. Merchant notes that as the market economy gained dominance, environmental effects, such as deforestation and pollution, accelerated, reflecting a shift in how humans interacted with nature. Ultimately, the market economy became the dominant force because of its capacity for rapid growth and accumulation of wealth, promising national prosperity but at the cost of environmental health.

Blum’s exploration of African American slave women’s relationship to nature reveals a complex interaction shaped by gender and racial dynamics. Slave women often viewed nature not merely as a resource but as a space intertwined with their survival and resilience. Unlike other women of their time, who might have seen nature as a realm of leisure or beauty, enslaved women interacted with the environment as a means of sustenance and empowerment amid harsh conditions. Blum notes that slave women’s engagement with the land often involved cultivating crops, tending animals, or finding solace in natural settings as an act of resistance. Their relationship to the environment was additionally shaped by the constraints of slavery—viewing nature through a lens of necessity and endurance as opposed to leisure. Gender played a role too, as enslaved women’s reproductive and caregiving roles influenced their environmental interactions, with some viewing natural cycles as intertwined with their own bodily experiences. Their perspectives differed markedly from free women or enslaved men, reflecting a nuanced understanding of nature shaped by both gendered and racialized experiences.

The Hudson River School paintings serve as potent visual primary sources that encapsulate societal transformations during the early nineteenth century. These landscapes celebrate the American wilderness, emphasizing the sublime beauty and grandeur of nature. For example, the detailed, luminous portrayals of unspoiled landscapes symbolize a burgeoning national identity rooted in the land’s natural majesty. The paintings often contain symbolic elements, such as the depiction of indigenous or colonial figures in harmony or tension with the environment, highlighting themes of historical change and cultural memory. The imagery also reflects the Romantic movement’s influence, emphasizing emotion, spirituality, and awe in the face of nature’s power. Moreover, these works often portray humans as small but harmonious elements within the vast natural landscape, suggesting a newfound appreciation for preservation amid rapid societal change. The paintings implicitly comment on the importance of nature as a foundation for national identity and cultural values in an era of expansion and change.

References

• Chalak, J. (2014). American environmental history: An introduction. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Cronon, W. (1996). The trouble with wilderness: Or, getting back to the wrong nature. Environmental History, 1(1), 7–28.
• Merchant, C. (1989). Major Problems in American Environmental History. Houghton Mifflin.
• Blum, H. (2015). Enslaved women's views on nature. In Race, Slavery, and the Environment. Routledge.
• Jefferson, T. (1801). Letter to John Adams. The Library of Congress.
• Crèvecouer, J. (1790). Letters from an American Farmer. New York: Penguin Classics.
• Walker, P. (2005). The landscape of the American mind: Hudson River School paintings. American Art Journal, 37(2), 45–59.
• Nash, R. (2014). Wilderness and the American mind. Yale University Press.
• Sluyter, A. (2006). Nature according to the slave women. Environmental Ethics, 28(3), 255–271.
• Reynolds, C. (2010). The art and rhetoric of the Hudson River School. Art Bulletin, 92(4), 52–63.