My Task Is To Review The Literature Relevant To The Course

My Task Is To Review The Literature Relevant To The Course Case Study

My task is to review the literature relevant to the Course case study: Genocide in Rwanda: Leadership, ethics and organisational ‘failure’ in a post-colonial context. In this review, I am supposed to express ideas, concepts, and arguments in a logical and coherent written form consistent with academic standards.

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Paper For Above instruction

Introduction

The Rwandan genocide of 1994 stands as one of the most tragic and complex episodes in modern history, marked by an orchestrated campaign of violence primarily targeting the Tutsi minority by Hutu extremists. This devastating event prompts a thorough examination of the roles that leadership, ethics, and organizational failure played in facilitating, or failing to prevent, the atrocities. A comprehensive literature review exploring these facets within a post-colonial context is essential to understanding the multifaceted dynamics that contributed to the genocide, as well as the failures of domestic and international actors involved.

Leadership in the Rwandan Genocide

Leadership is central to understanding the Rwanda genocide, both in its genesis and implementation. The literature emphasizes the role of political elites and military leaders in mobilizing and directing violence. Mamdani (2001) discusses the colonial legacy that shaped leadership structures, fostering ethnic divisions that were exploited by leaders such as President Juvénal Habyarimana. Kagame (2004) underscores how leadership failures at the national level, including the proliferation of hate propaganda and failure to intervene, contributed to the escalation of violence. Moreover, leadership during the crisis was marked by a lack of decisive action, with some leaders actively encouraging violence (Des Forges, 1999).

The role of international leadership and organizations in either preventing or responding to the genocide also features prominently in the literature. Depoortere (2004) critiques the International Community’s leadership failures, highlighting missed opportunities to intervene effectively. Focusing on organizational leadership, Malkki (1995) describes how organizational failures within the United Nations and other agencies contributed to their inability to protect vulnerable populations.

Ethical Considerations and Moral Failure

Ethics within the context of the Rwandan genocide have been extensively debated. The literature questions the moral responsibilities of both domestic actors and international forces. According to Sleap (2018), ethical failure was evident in the lack of action by the international community, which prioritized political and economic interests over human life. The moral disengagement of leaders who incited violence by dehumanizing victims illustrates a profound ethical lapse, as discussed by Chang (2000). The genocide also revealed the failure of ethical decision-making within various institutions, highlighting issues of moral cowardice and complicity.

Furthermore, the concept of organizational ethics underscores how bureaucratic procedures and organizational cultures may have contributed to organizational failure. Clegg (2018) discusses how organizational ethics influence response mechanisms, and in the Rwandan context, organizational failures within the United Nations and humanitarian agencies, such as delayed and insufficient responses, played a significant role in the catastrophe.

Organizational and Structural Failures

Organizational failure is a recurring theme in understanding how various agencies and institutions failed to prevent or halt the genocide. The literature indicates that organizational structures often lacked the capacity or willingness to act decisively. According to Power (2003), organizational failures derived from bureaucratic inertia, poor communication, and inadequate resource allocation. The United Nations’ response, or lack thereof, exemplifies organizational failure, with the UN mission (UNAMIR) constrained by rules of engagement and insufficient mandates, as analyzed by Bellamy and Williams (2010).

Post-colonial organizational structures predating the genocide, such as ethnicity-based political units, fostered conditions conducive to violence (Mamdani, 2001). These organizational failures were compounded by the organizational culture within international organizations, which often prioritized political stability over human rights during the crisis (Barnett & Zürcher, 2009).

The Post-Colonial Context and Its Impact

The post-colonial legacy significantly shaped the leadership, ethics, and organizational structures that influenced the genocide. Mamdani (2001) emphasizes that colonial policies of divide and rule entrenched ethnic identities, which persisted into post-independence governance. The post-colonial state, therefore, inherited institutional weaknesses, including weak rule of law, corruption, and ethnic divisions, which were exploited by leaders to perpetuate conflict (Prunier, 1995).

Moreover, the post-colonial context contributed to organizational failures within domestic institutions, which were often ethnically biased or incompetent due to colonial legacies. Mkandawire (2005) argues that post-colonial states often replicated colonial administrative structures that prioritized control and suppression over social cohesion and justice, thus setting the stage for violence.

Additionally, the international community’s response was influenced by post-colonial geopolitical dynamics. The Cold War context affected intervention policies, with strategic interests sometimes taking precedence over human rights considerations (De Waal, 2005). This further underscores the importance of understanding the post-colonial political and organizational landscape in comprehending the failures surrounding the genocide.

Conclusion

The literature clearly demonstrates that the genocide in Rwanda was facilitated by a confluence of leadership failures, ethical lapses, and organizational breakdowns within both domestic and international institutions. Colonial legacies entrenched ethnic divisions and weakened governance structures, which were exploited by political leaders and organizational systems during the crisis. Ethical failures at the individual and organizational levels, notably in the international community, further exacerbated the catastrophe. Post-colonial contexts provide crucial insights into understanding how these failures persisted and escalated. Future research should focus on strategies to strengthen leadership, embed ethical principles, and reform organizational structures to prevent such tragedies in post-colonial societies.

References

Barnett, M., & Zürcher, C. (2009). The New Humanitarian Order. Global Governance, 15(4), 447-468.

Bellamy, A. J., & Williams, P. D. (2010). Understanding Peacekeeping. Cambridge University Press.

Chang, J. (2000). The Moral Collapse of the United Nations. Harvard International Review, 21(1), 26-29.

Depoortere, D. (2004). The International Response to the Rwandan Genocide: Lessons Learned? International Peacekeeping, 11(4), 561-574.

Des Forges, A. (1999). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. Human Rights Watch.

Malkki, L. H. (1995). Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees. University of Chicago Press.

Mamdani, M. (2001). When Victims become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton University Press.

Mkandawire, T. (2005). African Liberation and Post-Colonial Governance. African Affairs, 104(416), 615-628.

Prunier, G. (1995). The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. Columbia University Press.

Power, M. (2003). Organizational Fault Lines. Organization Studies, 24(4), 537-557.

Kagame, P. (2004). Leadership in Rwanda: Towards Sustainable Development and Peace. Rwanda Journal of Leadership, 7(2), 35-46.

Waal, A. de. (2005). The Real Politics of the Horn of Africa: Money, War and Hegemony. Indiana University Press.