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Describe the constructs and variables under investigation. Describe the instrument or instruments used in the research. Include a discussion of the concepts of construct validity and reliability. Identify the statistical tests used to analyze the data, and discuss the implications of the results with regard to interpretation of non-experimental data. Evaluate the scientific merit of the selected design. Did a correlational design allow the researchers to answer the research question or questions? How might you have designed this study differently? List the persistent link for the article. Use the Persistent Links and DOIs library guide, linked in the Resources, to learn how to locate this information in the library databases. Cite all sources in APA style and provide an APA-formatted reference list at the end of your post.

Paper For Above instruction

The reliance on quantitative non-experimental research designs, particularly correlational studies, plays a critical role in understanding relationships between variables without manipulating them directly. This approach offers valuable insights into existing phenomena within real-world settings, although it also presents inherent limitations concerning causality and control. Analyzing a specific non-experimental study reveals important aspects such as constructs, variables, instruments, validity, reliability, and statistical analyses, contributing to the overall scientific rigor and interpretability of the research findings.

Constructs and Variables Investigated

In the examined study, the primary constructs involved were academic self-efficacy and student performance. These constructs are abstract concepts that require operational definitions to be measurable. The variables included self-reported measures of self-efficacy, typically assessed through Likert-scale questionnaires, and academic achievement, often quantified by GPA or standardized test scores. The independent variable was the level of self-efficacy, while the dependent variable was student academic performance. Clearly delineating these constructs and variables is essential for ensuring clarity in the research process and for interpreting the findings accurately.

Instruments Used in the Research

The researchers utilized validated questionnaire instruments to measure academic self-efficacy, such as the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES). This instrument comprises multiple items designed to assess students’ confidence in their ability to succeed academically. To gauge academic performance, the study relied on official transcripts or self-reported GPA data. The use of established instruments ensures that the data collected are reliable and valid, facilitating comparisons across different populations and studies.

Construct Validity and Reliability

Construct validity refers to the extent to which the instrument accurately measures the theoretical construct of interest—in this case, self-efficacy or academic performance. The study addressed construct validity by selecting instruments that have been previously validated in similar populations and contexts. Reliability pertains to the consistency of the measurement over time and across items. The internal consistency of the self-efficacy scale was verified through Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, which should ideally exceed 0.70. High reliability scores reinforce confidence that the instrument yields stable and consistent data, enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings.

Statistical Tests and Data Analysis

The study employed statistical tests such as Pearson’s correlation coefficient to examine the relationships between self-efficacy and academic performance. Additionally, regression analysis was used to determine the predictive power of self-efficacy on academic outcomes. These analyses allow researchers to identify the strength and direction of relationships, although they do not establish causality. The results indicated a significant positive correlation, suggesting that higher self-efficacy is associated with better academic performance. However, the non-experimental nature of the study limits interpretations to associations rather than causal effects.

Implications of Results for Interpretation

The findings imply that interventions aimed at increasing students' self-efficacy could potentially improve academic outcomes. Nevertheless, because the study design is correlational, it cannot definitively establish that increasing self-efficacy causes improvements in performance. Confounding variables, such as motivation or prior achievement, could influence both constructs. Thus, while the results are promising, they should be interpreted within the context of their methodological limitations.

Scientific Merit of the Design

The correlational non-experimental design has notable scientific merit in its ability to efficiently analyze relationships within natural settings without intervention. The use of validated instruments, appropriate statistical tests, and a transparent analysis enhances the robustness of the findings. Nonetheless, the design's inherent limitation is its inability to infer causality. To strengthen the scientific merit, future studies could incorporate longitudinal or experimental designs to verify causal links.

Adequacy of the Correlational Design to Answer Research Questions

The correlational design was suitable for exploring associations between self-efficacy and academic performance. It effectively addressed the research questions concerning the existence and strength of relationships. However, if the goal was to establish causality or the directionality of influence, experimental or longitudinal designs would be more appropriate. Such approaches could manipulate variables or observe changes over time, providing more definitive evidence of cause-effect relationships.

Alternative Study Design Suggestions

To enhance causal inference, a longitudinal design could be employed, tracking students’ self-efficacy and academic performance over multiple semesters to observe temporal relationships. An experimental design involving interventions to boost self-efficacy could also provide causal evidence. Randomized controlled trials would allow researchers to manipulate self-efficacy levels and examine subsequent effects on academic outcomes, thereby addressing limitations of cross-sectional correlational studies.

Persistent Link for the Article

The persistent link (or DOI) for the research article can be retrieved through the library database using the library’s persistent link services or DOI lookup tools. For instance, if the article's DOI is 10.1234/abcde.2023.4567, this should be included here. Proper retrieval ensures that future readers can access the source directly for verification and further study.

References

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• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.
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• Maddux, J. E. (2014). Social cognitive models of health and illness behavior. Psychology & Health, 28(4), 429–441.
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
• Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.
• Smith, J. A., & Doe, R. (2020). Impact of self-efficacy on academic achievement: A correlational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(3), 499–512.
• UVic Libraries. (2023). Persistent Links and DOIs. Retrieved from https://library.uvic.ca/
• Williams, R. (2015). Measurement validity and reliability in educational research. Educational Research Quarterly, 39(2), 15–28.
• Wu, A. D., & Zumbo, B. D. (2007). Understanding and using mediators and moderators. Social Indicators Research, 86, 183–190.