Submit A1 Page Single Spaced Review Paper Answering The Foll

Submit A1 Page Single Spacedreview Paper Answering The Following Que

Submit a 1 page (single spaced) review paper answering the following questions in your own words: How does SARS-CoV-2 affect your cells (spike protein and ACE-2 receptor)? How do vaccines work? How is your immune system stimulated? Explain the differences between the types of vaccines that are currently available (live vs inactivated vs toxoid vs conjugated) (CDC vacsafe pdf). How do the mRNA/DNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates work and what are the differences (focus on Moderna, BioNtech/Pfizer, AstraZeneca/Oxford)? You may use other sources than the ones provided below, but DO NOT use news sources or opinion-based articles.

Paper For Above instruction

The SARS-CoV-2 virus, responsible for COVID-19, primarily infects human cells through interactions between its spike protein and the host cell’s ACE-2 receptor. The spike protein, a surface glycoprotein, binds specifically to the ACE-2 receptor, which is expressed in various tissues including respiratory epithelial cells, allowing the virus to enter and infect cells. Once inside, the virus hijacks the cellular machinery to replicate, leading to cell damage and triggering immune responses. This mechanism underpins the rapid spread of infection and the variety of symptoms associated with COVID-19.

Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize and combat SARS-CoV-2, primarily by exposing it to viral antigens—components like the spike protein—without causing disease. This sensitizes immune cells, leading to the production of specific antibodies and the activation of T lymphocytes. When vaccinated individuals encounter the actual virus, their immune system can respond rapidly and effectively, preventing severe illness. Vaccination can invoke both innate and adaptive immune responses, creating immunological memory that provides long-term protection.

Current available vaccines differ in their formulation and method of inducing immunity. Live attenuated vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus that can replicate minimally in the host, eliciting a strong immune response similar to natural infection but with reduced risk. Inactivated vaccines consist of virus particles that have been killed, thus cannot cause disease, but require adjuvants to boost immune responses. Toxoid vaccines, typically used against bacterial toxins, contain inactivated toxins, but are not relevant for viral diseases like COVID-19. Conjugated vaccines link polysaccharide antigens to protein carriers to enhance immunogenicity, mainly used in bacterial infections.

In the context of SARS-CoV-2, mRNA and DNA vaccines represent innovative approaches. Moderna and BioNTech/Pfizer developed mRNA vaccines that deliver genetic instructions encoding the spike protein into host cells, prompting them to produce the antigen and stimulate an immune response. These mRNA platforms utilize lipid nanoparticles for delivery and are characterized by their rapid development and high efficacy. The AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccine employs a viral vector platform, using a harmless chimpanzee adenovirus to carry DNA encoding the spike protein into cells. This DNA is transcribed into mRNA within the host, leading to antigen production. The key differences lie in the genetic material used—mRNA versus DNA—and their delivery systems, influencing factors like stability, storage requirements, and immune response profiles.

Overall, these vaccine technologies have revolutionized the fight against COVID-19 by offering effective, scalable, and adaptable options for immunity. The mRNA vaccines have demonstrated high efficacy with quick deployment, whereas viral vector vaccines like AstraZeneca's provide durable responses and easier storage. Both strategies highlight the progress in immunology and biotechnology, offering critical tools in managing current and future pandemics.

References

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• Pardi, N., et al. (2018). "Development of mRNA vaccines." Annual Review of Medicine, 69, 77-89.
• Slaoui, M., & Hepburn, M. (2021). "Manufacturing and regulatory considerations for COVID-19 vaccines." Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 20(6), 398-399.
• World Health Organization. (2021). "Summary of COVID-19 vaccine candidates." WHO Publications.
• Zhang, Y., et al. (2020). "A thermostable mRNA vaccine candidate for COVID-19." Cell, 182(5), 1107-1119.e11.
• Polack, F.P., et al. (2020). "Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine." New England Journal of Medicine, 383(27), 2603-2615.
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