Which Of The Following Practices Were Utilized By

Which Of The Following Practices Were Utilized By

Identify the core practices utilized by companies to maintain quality levels until the early 1980s, the elements supporting total quality principles, systems involved in quality assurance in manufacturing, historical developments related to reliability, quality assurance, and total quality management, the definitions and roles of ISO standards, Deming’s and Crosby’s philosophies, strategic approaches, leadership roles, team dynamics, process types, continuous improvement philosophies, costs associated with quality issues, sampling techniques, control charts, Six Sigma phases, and implementation assessments, along with essay questions on ISO 9000 standards, best practices, and Deming’s Profound Knowledge concerning the psychological component.

Paper For Above instruction

Maintaining high-quality standards has always been central to manufacturing and service industries, but the approaches have evolved significantly over time. Prior to the 1980s, most companies relied on practices such as inspection, process-improvement efforts, design-quality reviews, and team-based initiatives to uphold quality. Inspection, in particular, was crucial; it involved examining products at various stages to catch defects before products reached customers. Process-improvement efforts focused on reducing variability and defect rates by refining operational steps, while design-quality reviews ensured products met specifications before mass production. Team-based initiatives fostered collaboration, continuous feedback, and shared responsibility among employees, contributing to better quality control.

Supporting the principles of total quality management (TQM) involves an integrated organizational infrastructure, which unites management practices, tools, and techniques to improve quality. However, reliance on a separate Quality Department does not support the holistic, organization-wide approach that TQM demands; instead, quality responsibility is shared across all levels. The core principles emphasize a comprehensive, systemic approach, aligning processes, people, and culture to prioritize customer satisfaction. TQM’s emphasis on continuous improvement and employee involvement underscores the importance of an organization-wide commitment rather than isolated quality efforts.

Within manufacturing systems, various functions like sales, purchasing, and tooling influence quality assurance, but engineering plays a pivotal role in designing processes and products that meet strict standards. Other systems, such as sales and purchasing, indirectly impact quality through supplier selection and customer requirements. Notably, all these systems contribute collectively to an enterprise's quality assurance framework, emphasizing the interconnectedness of functions in producing defect-free products and satisfying customer needs.

The 1950s marked a pivotal era where increased product volume and complexity necessitated the development of reliability engineering and quality assurance departments. These functions aimed to reduce product failures and improve safety and performance, thus safeguarding brand reputation and market share. The rise of these specialized departments reflected a shift from reactive to proactive quality management, differentiating products through reliability and manufacturing excellence, leading to the later development of Total Quality Management (TQM).

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, established by an Act of Congress, recognizes organizations demonstrating outstanding quality practices and results. Created in the 1980s, it incentivized organizations to adopt comprehensive quality systems and continuous improvement strategies. The award emphasizes leadership, strategic planning, customer focus, measurement, workforce engagement, and process management, serving as a benchmark for excellence in quality management across diverse industries.

ISO 9000:2000 standards define a process-based approach to quality management systems, promoting a systematic framework where organizations understand and control their processes to meet customer requirements efficiently. This approach supports continuous improvement and consistent outputs, fostering customer satisfaction and operational excellence.

Deming identified that most system deficiencies causing poor quality originate from inadequate management and systemic issues rather than immediate workers or outdated equipment. Deming’s philosophy asserts that most quality problems are due to systemic causes, such as poor process design and management failures, rather than solely production workers' actions. This perspective urges management to focus on improving systems and processes, not blaming individuals.

In Deming’s view, inspection is often misused; it can encourage defect production, as it identifies and sorts defective goods rather than preventing defects in the first place. Inspection, when overemphasized, may lead to a false sense of security and does not add value to the product. Instead, Deming advocated for built-in quality through process control and continuous improvement, reducing reliance on inspections.

When competitors offer similar benefits at lower prices, their products are perceived to deliver higher value—combining quality, features, and affordability—thus compelling companies to focus not just on price but also on enhancing perceived customer value. Crosby’s “quality vaccine” comprises elements like reliability, education, and implementation, emphasizing that quality must be built into the process at every level for sustainable improvement.

Strategic integration is critical to organizational success. A strategy is an overarching approach that aligns the organization's goals, policies, and actions into a cohesive plan, guiding resource allocation and decision-making to achieve long-term objectives.

Leadership in quality involves inspiring continuous improvement across people, processes, and products. Effective leadership fosters a culture where quality is a shared value, and performance is regularly monitored and enhanced through collaborative efforts, training, and strategic planning, encompassing all organizational facets.

Deming emphasized that motivating workers effectively involves internal motivation rather than external incentives like bonuses. He believed that fostering intrinsic motivation through meaningful work, understanding, and pride leads to higher quality outcomes, while external incentives may undermine internal drive.

The manager’s role in empowerment includes commitment, leadership, and facilitation. Leaders must foster trust, provide resources and training, and encourage employee participation, ultimately enabling staff to make decisions, innovate, and contribute to quality improvements.

Effective teamwork depends on developing characteristics such as people skills, participation, and accountability. Leaders should cultivate an environment where team members feel responsible, communicate openly, and collaboratively work towards shared objectives to ensure high performance and quality outcomes.

In organizations implementing Six Sigma, future leaders are often identified among team members who demonstrate strong problem-solving abilities. These include Black Belts and Green Belts, who are trained to lead quality improvement projects and sustain process excellence.

Customer satisfaction hinges on processes that create products and services, especially those directly impacting customer experiences. Value-creation processes are key; they differentiate organizations by their ability to deliver products that meet or exceed customer expectations.

Kaizen emphasizes continuous improvement at all levels, fostering a culture of ongoing incremental changes that collectively enhance quality, reduce waste, and increase efficiency. It is a core principle driving lean manufacturing and quality initiatives.

The revenue lost by a manufacturer due to defective shirts with incorrect buttons illustrated the concept of external failure costs—costs incurred when defects are found after delivery. Managing these costs through prevention and robust process controls lowers overall expenses and enhances profitability.

Additional labor used in reworking parts, such as returning machined components for correction, represents internal failure costs—expenses arising from defects identified before reaching the customer. Effective quality management aims to minimize such costs through prevention and early detection.

Partitioning a population into hierarchical groups and selecting samples from each—stratified sampling—is essential for reducing sampling error and ensuring representativeness. This technique helps in obtaining more accurate and reliable survey or testing outcomes.

A bank experiencing complaints from a small part of its customer base exemplifies clustering, where focus is placed on specific segments for deeper analysis rather than treating the entire population uniformly, which improves targeted problem-solving.

Reducing sampling error involves increasing sample size, improving research design, and eliminating dissimilarity in population segments. Larger samples and careful design reduce variability and improve the reliability of statistical inferences.

Control limits on control charts—such as those for X-Bar and R-charts—are calculated using statistical formulas incorporating sample means, ranges, and process variation. For example, given sample data, the UCL and LCL are derived using specific constants and the overall process mean.

Six Sigma’s DMAIC methodology encompasses five phases: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control, systematically guiding problem-solving, process optimization, and sustaining improvements.

Successful implementation of TQM in organizations such as St. Luke’s Hospital involves recognizing the different phases: planning, execution, monitoring, and refinement, highlighting the importance of persistent effort and systemic change over time.

References

• Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. MIT Center for Advanced Educational Services.
• Crosby, P. B. (1979). Quality Is Free. McGraw-Hill.
• ISO. (2000). ISO 9000:2000 Quality management systems — Fundamentals and vocabulary. International Organization for Standardization.
• Juran, J. M., & De Feo, J. A. (2010). Juran's Quality Planning & Analysis. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Garvin, D. A. (1988). Managing Quality: The Critical Role of Quality Assurance. Harvard Business Review, 66(4), 65–75.
• Liu, S., & Wang, W. (2017). An overview of Six Sigma tools and applications. Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, 23(4), 464-482.
• Oakland, J. S. (2014). Big Strategies for Successful Quality Management. Routledge.
• Feigenbaum, A. V. (1991). Total Quality Control. McGraw-Hill.
• Pande, P. S., Neuman, R. P., & Cavanagh, R. R. (2000). The Six Sigma Way. McGraw-Hill.
• Schroeder, R. G., & Linderman, K. (2013). Six Sigma: A Practice Engine for Continuous Improvement. Journal of Operations Management, 31(6), 327-339.