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Working for Victory: Women During World War II

Introduction: The US supported entry into WWII, with only one congressional representative, Jeanette Rankin, voting against entry into the war. Responding to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and to Hitler’s menacing conquest of Europe, Americans overcame their reluctance to enter another international conflict and supported our nation’s entrance into the conflict. The war brought profound changes for the nation. As industries converted to produce military supplies, thousands of new jobs became available, and finally, the nation pulled itself out of the economic depression that almost ten years of FDR’s New Deal had been incapable of doing. At the beginning of 1941, as many as 40% of American families lived below the poverty level.

American women experienced the most significant and dramatic changes during the war. All during the depression women had been pressured to return to the home or to remain there. Laws and hiring policies discriminated against women and in some cases prohibited hiring married women. Now, as men were shipped off to the European and Pacific theaters of war, the nation’s war industries developed a dire need for workers. Within a very short period of time, the message women received regarding employment shifted 180 degrees.

Women embraced the opportunity to contribute to the war effort and improve their own conditions. The great mobilization of the female workforce was to be a temporary one, however. In less than a decade, women would go from being encouraged and rewarded for working in support of the war effort to being blocked from well-paying positions so that men could have them. Women would go from receiving decent compensation for their skilled work to being invited to submit recipes in the newly established Pillsbury bake-off contests.

The American Home Front during WWII

Maintaining the home front

As in previous wars, women supported the nation through rationing to conserve scarce resources, joining the Red Cross in large numbers, purchasing war bonds, and managing households and family businesses. After our nation officially declared war on Japan and Germany, the United States mobilized to support the war effort at an astounding pace, producing profound changes at home. There was an immediate increase in marriages, especially encouraged by the 1940 Selective Service Act, which excluded married fathers from being drafted, thus promoting higher birthrates and the phenomenon of “good-bye babies.”

Domestic rationing and conservation efforts helped win the war. Women who remained at home supported efforts just as they had in all previous conflicts, exemplified by the three million women who joined the Red Cross and invested in war bonds. Women also took on the responsibility of maintaining households and family businesses in the absence of their husbands.

“Rosie the Riveter” and Attitudes Toward Women’s Employment

Attitudes toward women working changed dramatically once America entered WWII. Over 6 million women joined the workforce, representing a 57% increase. Many women, including married women with children, filled jobs previously considered masculine, such as aircraft manufacturing. For example, 300,000 women received training and worked in the aircraft industry, assembling B-29 bombers, tanks, warships, and ammunition. Women's wages increased significantly, from $24.50 weekly before the war to $40.35 in war industry jobs. However, racism persisted—African American women often received lower pay and were relegated to the most hazardous jobs, such as working in glue fumes in aircraft plants or other dangerous environments.

The phenomenon of "Rosie the Riveter" symbolized the patriotic contributions of women workers, encouraging millions to participate in war efforts. Women’s labor during this period was vital, and their presence challenged traditional gender roles, although discrimination and segregation remained issues.

Women in the Military

To address shortages, the military created women’s branches: the Women’s Army Corps (WACS), Women’s Reserve of the US Navy (WAVES), Coast Guard SPARS, and Marine Corps Women’s Reserve. Around 350,000 women enlisted during WWII, mainly in clerical, medical, communications, supply, and support roles. Women pilots also served as transport pilots and trainers through organizations like the Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). The military maintained restrictions on women in combat and leadership, but their service was crucial for support roles. Enlistment requirements limited married women with children from serving, though exceptions were made, and by 1943, restrictions on female officers and doctors were eased.

Racial Segregation and Discrimination

Despite opportunities created for women, racial segregation persisted within the armed forces. African American women, such as those under Captain Charity Adams, served in segregated units, faced quotas, and generally received lower pay and less desirable assignments. Executive Order 8802 aimed to prohibit discriminatory hiring practices, yet inequalities remained evident, especially for women of color who often worked in hazardous conditions like aircraft assembly’s “dope rooms” filled with toxic fumes.

Internment and Discrimination Against Japanese Americans

Executive Order 9066, signed in 1942, resulted in the internment of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans in camps such as Manzanar. Despite their service, as exemplified by Private Margaret Fukuoka, internment represented a gross violation of civil liberties and reflected racial prejudice that conflicted with American democratic values.

Women in Non-Combat Roles

Initially, skepticism about women's ability to serve as pilots was overcome through demonstration, leading to the creation of the WASP, with initial pilots flying domestically. After WWII, these women faced discharge and barriers to commercial aviation employment based on gendered perceptions of public confidence in women pilots. Women in clerical and support positions continued to serve, often targeted specifically through patriotic propaganda emphasizing their role in victory and national service. Nevertheless, posters and media often reinforced stereotypes and double standards, including lack of access to birth control in military services.

Post-War Disappointments and the Cold War Shift

Despite their contributions, many women faced a “post-war letdown” when wartime jobs disappeared as soldiers returned home. Public opinion shifted, and the dominant cultural narrative emphasized domesticity, suburban life, and traditional gender roles during the Cold War era. Many women who worked during WWII lost their jobs, and societal expectations discouraged women from maintaining their wartime employment. While 80% of women expressed a desire to keep their wartime jobs, only a minority actually could continue working after the war.

The post-war period saw women’s roles severely restricted, and the societal focus shifted towards stabilizing the nuclear family and suburban life. The wartime shifts laid groundwork for future activism, but the immediate aftermath was characterized by reintegration into traditional gender roles, with many women experiencing disillusionment and economic insecurity.

Conclusion

The experience of women during WWII was transformational but ultimately temporary. Their active participation in the workforce and military challenged gender stereotypes and demonstrated their vital role in national defense. Nevertheless, societal expectations and institutional discrimination quickly pushed women back into domestic roles post-war, reinforcing a cycle of temporary empowerment followed by retrenchment. Understanding this complex history is crucial to appreciating the ongoing struggles for gender equality and recognizing the resilience of women who contributed significantly under challenging circumstances.

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