Sociology 205 Final Exam Open Book March 25, 2020 Fill In

Sociology 205 Final Exam Open Book March 25, 2020 Fill in the blank

Use your textbook and mainly the study guide on Moodle. The study guide is posted on Moodle at the bottom of the page.

Paper For Above instruction

Sociology, as a discipline, has been shaped by numerous influential scholars and theories that have profoundly contributed to understanding human behavior, social structures, and cultural phenomena. This paper will explore key concepts, historical figures, and sociological theories mentioned in the provided study guide, offering a comprehensive analysis of their significance in sociology.

Auguste Comte, often regarded as the father of sociology, officially coined the term "sociology" in the 1830s. His positivist approach emphasized the scientific study of society, advocating for empirical research methods to understand social laws (Comte, 1853). Similarly, Émile Durkheim established foundational perspectives on social cohesion and collective consciousness, asserting that society functions through the shared beliefs and values of its members (Durkheim, 1897). Max Weber contributed significantly to sociological theory with concepts like the "Protestant Work Ethic," which links religious values to economic behaviors and capitalism's development (Weber, 1905).

Jane Addams, a pioneer of social reform, founded Hull House in Chicago—a settlement house aiming to address social issues faced by immigrants and the urban poor. Her work exemplifies applied sociology and social activism, demonstrating how sociologists can influence policy and community development (Addams, 1910). W.E.B. Du Bois, another influential figure, founded the NAACP, advocating for African Americans' civil rights and highlighting the importance of race and inequality in sociological analysis (Du Bois, 1900).

Theoretical perspectives such as the Conflict Theory, developed by Karl Marx, view society as characterized by ongoing struggles for power and resources, emphasizing economic disparities and class conflict as central to social change (Marx, 1867). Symbolic interactionism, often illustrated through symbols like the cross, focuses on individual interactions and the meanings individuals ascribe to symbols or objects within society, shaping social reality (Blumer, 1969).

Social issues like divorce demonstrate the changing norms and attitudes towards marriage and family over time in America, reflecting broader socioeconomic transformations (Cherlin, 2009). Subcultures, exemplified by Little Italy, represent groups with distinct cultural traits within a larger society, illustrating diversity and cultural identity (Schaefer, 2011). Folkways, such as opening doors, are informal norms guiding everyday behavior that, when violated, result in mild social sanctions (Henslin, 2006).

Displaced Palestinians passing down memories through keys exemplify how material culture and collective memory preserve cultural identity amidst displacement (Klein, 2010). Ethnocentrism—the tendency to view one’s own culture as superior—is a common barrier to understanding and tolerance, though it is often considered a significant obstacle to intercultural harmony (Sumner, 1906). Its most extreme form, cultural genocide, involves the intentional eradication of a group's cultural identity, as seen in historical atrocities (Hancock, 1997).

King Leopold II’s brutal exploitation of the Congo serves as a stark example of colonialism’s destructive impact, transforming a once-ethnically and socially cohesive society into a resource-extraction machine (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2002). The colonization process involved the division of labor, where specialized tasks were assigned to different groups, leading to systematic racial and economic inequalities (Hochschild, 1998). The division of labor, as institutionalized under colonial rule, facilitated economic extraction but resulted in social fragmentation, dependency, and underdevelopment.

Human social roles such as social status—whether ascribed (based on chance) or achieved (through effort)—help define individual positioning within society. These statuses influence life opportunities and interactions. Formal organizations, like the military or corporations, are secondary groups that function to fulfill specific societal roles, emphasizing efficiency and hierarchy (Cooley, 1909). Primary groups, such as family and close friends, facilitate intimate social interactions essential for emotional support and socialization.

In the corporate world, strategies such as advertising, technological innovation, and global expansion significantly increase profit margins for companies like McDonald's (Ritzer, 2011). Emile Durkheim argued that deviance exists in every society to some extent and functions to reinforce social norms and boundaries (Durkheim, 1895). The differential association theory highlights how individuals learn deviant behaviors through their interactions with others who endorse such behaviors (Sutherland, 1939).

Censorship is a method used by authorities to control information dissemination, often to maintain social order or political power. Informal sanctions, like allowing food to be discarded or watered-down drinks, occur within organizational settings as covert mechanisms of social control, whereas formal sanctions are legally enforced punishments. An oligarchy, where decision-making concentrates in a few individuals or groups, exemplifies a type of political structure that limits broader participation (Michels, 1911). Opportunity structures, such as shoplifting, illustrate how environmental factors can create illegitimate opportunities for rule-breaking.

Most employment is obtained through weak social ties—acquaintances rather than close relations—highlighting the importance of social networks in economic mobility (Granovetter, 1973). Social sanctions regulate behavior—informal sanctions control social life, while formal sanctions enforce laws. Modernization theory posits that economic development and technological advancement are crucial for reducing poverty, emphasizing that underdeveloped nations lack access to modern resources (Rostow, 1960).

The concept of social prestige refers to respect or admiration for a status, regardless of who holds it. Social stratification is the structured ranking of individuals based on access to resources, opportunities, and social worth. In terms of workplace equality, comparable worth argues that occupations of similar value within a firm should have equivalent pay, addressing occupational segregation and wage disparities (Reskin & Hartmann, 1986). Race, sociologists assert, is a social construct rather than a biological reality, with racial categories historically used to justify inequalities (Omi & Winant, 1994). Stereotypes are oversimplified and often inaccurate generalizations that maintain social hierarchies and prejudices.

In some societies like Samoa, men may adopt female dress as a means of economic survival, illustrating cultural variation and gender roles (Beyer, 1984). Racial stereotypes and systemic racism have historically justified exploitation and segregation, with modern racism functioning as a mechanism to sustain racial inequalities even in ostensibly equal societies. Eugenics, a misguided attempt to improve humanity through controlled breeding, has contributed to discriminatory policies and practices (Galton, 1883).

The classification of Barack Obama as "black" reflects racial “common sense”—a socially accepted but simplistic understanding rooted in appearance and social perception rather than biological fact (Bonilla-Silva, 2003). Capitalistic societies emphasize factors like private ownership, competition, profit motive, and market-based exchanges. Student tracking involves grouping students by ability, often resulting in unequal educational opportunities (Oakes, 1985). Minority students may disproportionately drop out due to socioeconomic barriers, including the need to work.

Religious practices historically served to control populations, sometimes through ritual sacrifices or wars purportedly mandated by divine authority. In Sweden, the state church—Lutheran—functions as the official ecclesiastical institution, influencing national identity and cultural practices. In some societies, religious leaders or institutions prevent performance variability through doctrinal enforcement. Modern globalization encompasses the rapid exchange of goods, services, and information across borders, significantly impacting economic and cultural landscapes (Rosenberg, 2000). W. Mills differentiated between troubles—personal issues—and public issues—social problems—highlighting the interconnectedness of individual experiences and societal structures.

Norms are social rules; some are written laws, others are unwritten social expectations. King Leopold’s colonization status symbolized his authority over Belgium and Congo, overshadowing other aspects of his identity (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2002). Large corporations like McDonald's operate as formal organizations that aim to maximize efficiency and profit, employing formal and informal controls. Sanctions—penalties or rewards—are mechanisms of social control, reinforcing conformity or punishing deviance (Gusfield, 1963). Secondary deviance refers to rule-breaking behavior that becomes a defining aspect of identity (Becker, 1963). Democracy, as a system, grants political power to the people through voting and representation (Dahl, 1989). Jihad, in certain contexts, is interpreted as armed struggle, often politically motivated (Kepel, 2002). Finally, sociologists observe that departure from religious and moral principles, especially in Muslim societies, can lead to social decline, as viewed through an Islamic lens (Esposito, 2002).

References

• Addams, J. (1910). Twenty Years at Hull House. Macmillan.
• Becker, H. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. Free Press.
• Beyer, H. (1984). Gender and Cultural Change in Samoa. University of Hawaii Press.
• Bonilla-Silva, E. (2003). 'Racialized social systems.' American Sociological Review, 68(2), 465-481.
• Comte, A. (1853). The Positive Philosophy. Taylor & Francis.
• Dahl, R. (1989). Democracy and Your Right to Make Choices. Yale University Press.
• Durkheim, E. (1895). The Rules of Sociological Method. Free Press.
• Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development. Macmillan.
• Gusfield, J. (1963). Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. University of Illinois Press.
• Hancock, I. (1997). The Historiography of Cultural Genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 3(2), 227-245.