True Or False: Sociologists Are In Agreement That Virtual Co
True Or False Sociologists Are In Agreement That Virtual Communitie
1) True or False. Sociologists are in agreement that virtual communities—that is online communities of various types—fit the sociological definition of a community.
2) True or False. The Milgram study provides evidence that obedience to even seemingly unreasonable authority may be more common than most of us would like to believe.
3) A(n) __________ is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common.
4) Sociologist Charles H. Cooley used the term __________ to describe a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time.
5) The term for people with whom we have primary relationships and those in our primary groups is __________.
6) A(n) __________ is a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity.
7) A(n) __________ is a group that strongly influences a person's behavior and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member.
8) __________ suggest that groups involve unequal power relationships so that not all members of a group are equally likely to have their needs met.
9) Two best friends, married couples, and domestic partnerships are each an example of a __________.
10) Gina is a member of a group working on a research project for a class assignment. Whenever the group meets, other members are easily sidetracked and Gina is always trying to keep the group focused on the assignment. Gina would be considered the __________ leader of the group.
11) Sociologists refer to the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group as __________.
12) Political parties, ecological activist groups, religious organizations, parent–teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities are examples of this one of Etzioni's types of organizations: __________________.
13) True or False. From the functionalist perspective, a certain amount of deviance is necessary for the smooth functioning of society.
14) True or False. Higher-income households are more likely than lower-income households to be the victims of property crimes and burglary.
15) __________ is the term for any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs.
16) The sociological term for a spoiled or devalued social identity is __________.
17) __________ refers to the use of negative sanctions that proscribe certain behaviors and set forth the punishments for rule breakers and nonconformists.
18) In contemporary societies, the primary mechanism of external social control is __________.
19) A group of protestors appeals their arrest on the grounds that police officers overstepped their authority. The case goes to court. This scenario best illustrates which of these functions of deviance?
20) According to Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people accept society's goals but adopt disapproved means for achieving them.
21) Gangs provide members with a means of attaining higher status and material rewards that may otherwise seem unavailable to them. Cloward and Ohlin have coined the concept of __________ to refer to this.
22) Research shows that __________ are more likely to be perceived as members of the dangerous classes and receive stricter sentences in criminal courts.
23) A branch of the conflict perspective, Marxist/critical theory views deviance and crime as a result of __________.
24) __________ focus on social processes, such as how people develop a self-concept and learn conforming behavior through socialization. According to this approach, deviance is learned in the same way as conformity—through engagement with others.
25) Based on the symbolic interactionist theory of sociologists Charles H. Cooley and George H. Mead, the __________ theory states that deviance is a socially constructed process in which social control agencies designate certain people as deviants, and they, in turn, come to accept the marker placed upon them and begin to act accordingly.
26) True or False. A person’s ability to succeed and his or her position in the class structure is determined largely by the stratification system of the society.
27) __________ is the sociological term for the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on the control of basic resources.
28) The sociological term for the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another is __________.
29) The U.S. State Department estimates that about __________ foreigners are brought to the United States and enslaved annually.
30) Until the 1990s, white South Africans controlled the government, the police, and the military by enforcing __________, the term used in South Africa for “the separation of the races."
31) In a class system, ___________.
32) Becky’s story illustrates the concept of __________.
33) Sociologist Karl Marx believed that the workers are exploited as capitalists maximize their profit by paying the workers less than the resale values of what they produce. Marx believed that this resulted in a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement that he called __________.
34) Whereas Marx defined class in purely economic terms, sociologist __________ developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power.
35) According to sociologist Max Weber’s system of stratification, __________ is the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others.
36) The upper-middle class is comprised of highly educated professionals, such as physicians, attorneys, stockbrokers, and corporate managers, which make up about __________ of the population.
37) In 2012, the top 5 percent of households in the United States received more than 20 percent of all income—an amount greater than that received by the bottom __________ of all households.
38) True or False. Throughout the world, the countries that have been most successful in moving from low- to middle-income status have been those most involved in the global capitalist economy.
39) Global stratification __________.
40) The income gap between the richest and the poorest 20 percent of the world population __________.
41) Low-income countries are primarily __________, and have little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income.
42) The terms “First World,” “Second World,” and “Third World” categorize countries according to __________.
43) The __________, named after a U.S. Secretary of State, provided massive sums of money in direct aid and loans to rebuild the European economic base destroyed during World War II.
44) The movement of jobs and economic resources from one nation to another is termed __________.
45) __________ poverty is measured by comparing personal or household income or expenses with the cost of buying a given quantity of goods and services.
46) _________ exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living.
47) Based on the Gini coefficient, which of these countries has the least economic inequality?
48) In 1990, the United Nations introduced the __________, establishing three new criteria, in addition to the gross national income, for measuring the level of development in a country.
49) The bottom three countries in human development are located in __________.
50) According to __________, the low-income, less-developed nations can improve their standard of living only with a period of intensive economic growth and accompanying changes in people’s beliefs, values, and attitudes toward work.
Paper For Above instruction
Sociologists have long debated the nature and scope of virtual communities, especially regarding whether they qualify as genuine communities under sociological definitions. While some argue that online interactions create social bonds similar to traditional communities, others contend that the lack of physical proximity and face-to-face interactions diminishes their sociological significance. Despite these debates, there is a growing consensus that virtual communities exhibit many features of traditional communities, such as shared interests and collective identities (Hampton & Wellman, 2018). The nature of community has evolved with technological advancements, leading sociologists to reassess earlier definitions and incorporate digital platforms into their frameworks.
The Milgram obedience experiment remains one of the most influential studies in social psychology, illustrating how ordinary individuals can cause harm under authoritative pressure. Milgram's 1961 experiment demonstrated that a significant proportion of participants were willing to administer potentially lethal electric shocks when instructed by an authority figure. These findings suggest that obedience to authority may be more prevalent and insidious than concluded by moral self-assessment, prompting sociologists and psychologists to explore the structures that facilitate such deference (Blass, 2012). The implications for understanding authority dynamics, compliance, and social conformity are profound, especially considering the potential for abuse within hierarchical systems.
In sociological terms, a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else is called an aggregate. Unlike social groups or categories, aggregates lack sustained interaction or shared identity and are usually transient, such as people waiting in line or passing shoppers. This distinction is critical in understanding social organization, as aggregates do not form the basis of social cohesion or normative regulation (Giddens, 2013).
Charles H. Cooley's concept of the primary group refers to small, face-to-face groups characterized by intimate, emotion-based interactions over extended periods. These groups, such as family and close friends, play vital roles in shaping individuals' self-concepts and social identities. Cooley emphasized that primary groups are essential for developing the 'looking-glass self,' wherein one's self-image is influenced by how others perceive and interact with us (Cooley, 1902). These groups foster emotional bonds and social support that are fundamental to human social life.
The term "primary relationships" refers to close, personal interactions with individuals within one's primary group. These relationships are characterized by intimacy, emotional depth, and enduring bonds, distinguishing them from secondary or superficial associations. Primary groups, such as family and close friends, serve as the foundation for socialization and the development of social identities (Tönnies, 1887). The concept underscores the importance of close, personal contact in forming cohesive social units.
An ingroup is a group to which an individual belongs and with which they identify strongly, often experiencing a sense of solidarity and loyalty. In contrast, the outgroup comprises groups perceived as different or outside one's own social boundaries. These distinctions are crucial in understanding in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination, phenomena extensively studied in social psychology (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
A reference group is a group that strongly influences an individual's attitudes, values, and behavior, regardless of actual membership. Such groups serve as standards or benchmarks for self-evaluation and social comparison. For example, one might compare oneself to peers or aspirational groups to assess social standing or behavioral norms (Merton, 1957). These influence social behavior significantly, shaping personal choices and perceptions.
In sociological contexts, a group to which a person belongs and feels a sense of identity is called an ingroup. Outgroups are those perceived as different, often associated with competition or conflict. Understanding these distinctions is vital for analyzing processes like social cohesion and intergroup relations (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
A referent group that influences individuals’ attitudes and behaviors regardless of membership exerts a powerful social influence. It acts as a standard for comparison and can motivate conforming or deviant behavior depending on the standards it sets (Merton, 1957).
Conflict theorists argue that social groups involve power disparities, which result in unequal access to resources and opportunities. These disparities create class conflicts and social inequalities, as dominant groups exercise control over societal institutions to maintain their privilege (Marx, 1867). Power relations are central to understanding social stratification and inequality.
Dyads, or two-person groups, are common social units. Examples include two friends, married couples, or domestic partnerships. Dyads are the simplest form of social groups, characterized by intimacy and direct interaction, but they are also fragile, as the removal of one member often dissolves the relationship (Merritt & Pettit, 1998).
Gina’s role as someone trying to keep her group focused on their research project illustrates her position as the instrumental leader. Instrumental leaders focus on task completion and organizing group efforts, ensuring that objectives are met efficiently (Bass, 1991).
Conformity refers to adjusting one's behavior or attitudes to align with group norms. Sociologists describe this process as social control, which can be internal (self-regulation) or external (sanctions). Conformity helps maintain social order and cohesion (Asch, 1951).
Etzioni categorizes organizations into normative, utilitarian, coercive, and totalitarian types. Religious groups, volunteer organizations, and social clubs exemplify normative organizations, where members join voluntarily and share common values (Etzioni, 1961).
From a functionalist perspective, deviance has a positive role in society, such as clarifying norms, promoting social cohesion, and facilitating social change. Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal part of social life that helps societies evolve by challenging outdated norms (Durkheim, 1897). This perspective emphasizes stability and adaptation through social regulation.
The belief that higher-income households are more likely to be victims of property crimes is false. Typically, lower-income neighborhoods experience higher rates of property crimes, such as burglary, due to economic disparities and social disadvantages (Bursik & Grasmick, 1993).
The term 'deviance' refers to behaviors, beliefs, or conditions that violate significant social norms, which can vary by culture and context. Deviance is relative and socially constructed, not inherent in any act or condition (Lemert, 1951).
Stigma denotes a spoiled social identity, often associated with labels that devalue individuals due to traits or behaviors deemed undesirable by society. Goffman's (1963) work elucidates how stigmatized individuals manage social rejection.
Internal social control involves internalized norms and values guiding behavior, while external social control involves sanctions and enforcement mechanisms. Negative sanctions, such as fines or social exclusion, serve to maintain social order by discouraging deviant behavior (Hirschi, 1969).
In contemporary societies, the criminal justice system serves as the primary external social control mechanism, with police, courts, and corrections enforcing laws and social norms (Roberts & Doob, 2007).
The scenario of protestors appealing their arrest illustrates the function of deviance in promoting social change. Deviance can challenge existing norms and institutions, spurring reforms and social movements (Miller, 2008).
Merton’s strain theory explains that social structure can pressure individuals to commit deviance. When people accept societal goals but lack legitimate means, they may resort to innovation or other modes of adaptation (Merton, 1938).
Cloward and Ohlin's theory of illegitimate opportunity structures describes how gangs and deviant careers emerge due to access to illicit opportunities, often serving as alternative avenues for achieving material success (Cloward & Ohlin, 1960).
Younger, single, urban males are perceived as more dangerous and often face harsher sentencing in the criminal justice system. This reflects societal biases and stereotypes related to race, class, and gender (Fagen & Brolin, 1986).
Ideologically, Marxist or conflict theories consider deviance and crime as results of class conflict and capitalism’s exploitation. They argue that laws and norms serve the interests of the ruling class, marginalizing the working class (Marx, 1867).
Sociologists focusing on socialization see deviance as learned behavior, acquired through engagement with others and social interactions. Symbolic interactionists emphasize how social labels and interactions shape deviant identities (Becker, 1963).
The labeling theory states that individuals labeled as deviants may internalize this identity, leading to further deviant behavior. This process highlights the power of social context in shaping perceptions and actions (Lemert, 1951).
Stratification refers to the societal hierarchy that organizes individuals into classes based on access to resources and opportunities. It affects life chances, including health, education, and income (Weber, 1922).
The term 'stratification' describes the system of hierarchical layers in society, involving unequal distribution of resources like wealth and power. This system sustains social inequalities across generations.
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups within the stratification hierarchy. It can be upward or downward and is influenced by education, occupation, and economic opportunities (Erikson & Goldthorpe, 1992).
The U.S. Department of State estimates that thousands of foreigners are trafficked into slavery annually, often under coercive regimes (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2020).
Historically, apartheid was enforced in South Africa through laws that segregated racial groups, marginalizing non-white populations and maintaining white dominance (Thompson, 2001).
In a class system, status is primarily based on achieved resources and personal efforts, allowing for social mobility. The boundaries between classes are more fluid than in caste systems, where ascribed status is predominant (Wallerstein, 1974).
Becky’s situation exemplifies social mobility, highlighting how personal circumstances can shift an individual's position within the stratification system through changes in income, status, or education (Daniels, 2007).
Marx’s concept of alienation describes the worker’s sense of powerlessness and estrangement from their labor under capitalism, leading to feelings of disconnection from the product of their work and from themselves (Marx, 1867).
Max Weber offered a multidimensional view of social stratification encompassing class, status, and power, contrasting with Marx’s economic focus. Weber argued that prestige and authority also influence social hierarchies (Weber, 1922).
Weber's concept of 'power' refers to the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite resistance, often linked to domination and authority within