Women, The Civil War, Continuity, And Change

Women The Civil War Continuity And Changethe Sphere Of A Woman

Women & the Civil War, Continuity and Change “The Sphere of a Woman,†illustration in Godey’s Lady’s Book, March 1850, accessed 10/2/23

I. Overview: Women at the Outset of the Civil War

A. Employment (not recorded in the Census!) Underreported

1. Social identity would tend to dominate over economic activity which was incorporated into conceptions of women’s roles. A. Wives, mothers, daughters contributed the labor to run a household, including productive activities like weaving, shoemaking, candle making etc.

2. The census takers didn’t ask. Here’s a quote from the Census Population Report, 1870: “It is taken for granted that every man has an occupation… It is precisely the other way with women and young children. The assumption is, as the fact generally is, that they are not engaged in remunerative employment. Those who are so engaged constitute the exception, and it follows from a plain principle of human nature, that assistant marshals will not infrequently forget or neglect to ask the question.” Barry R. Chiswick, RaeAnn Halenda Robinson IZA DP No. 13424: Women at Work in the Pre-Civil War United States: An Analysis of Unreported Family Workers, June 2020, accessed 10/3/23

3. 11%-16% of women worked, which is the best count of the mid 19th century until recently. This would of course exclude enslaved women and underestimate participation of other categories such as middle class women sewing or shopkeeping, immigrant women, working-class women boarding or taking in boarders, free black women, and wives and daughters on farms or manufacturing.

4. A recent economic study using microdata from the 1860 census found that 56% of women engaged in economic activities similar to those described, comparable to 58% in 2018, suggesting the nature of women’s work shifted over time rather than its prevalence.

A. Employment (continued)

B. What other occupations were there?

1. Factory workers like the Lowell Mill Girls (to be discussed in the section on working women and unions)

2. Teachers – women increasingly filled this role. This was enabled by the establishment of compulsory education which increased demand for teachers, although wages for women teachers were only 60% of what male teachers earned. The Civil War diminished the availability of young men for these roles.

3. Higher education was opening to women as the supply of male students declined due to the draft and enlistment.

I. B. Education

1. By the Civil War, approximately half of American women were literate.

2. Women used their education as ¼ of national teachers were female, especially in Massachusetts where 4/5 of teachers were women. Women were seen as “best and cheapest” in nursery and classroom roles, fulfilling promised objectives by advocates like Catharine Beecher.

3. Higher education for women expanded as male enrollment declined during wartime.

I. C. Law

1. Married Women’s Property Acts—Mississippi was among the first, but economic turmoil in the 1837 panic delayed progressive legislation. Such acts allowed women to hold property but did not necessarily empower them, primarily aiming to protect family assets.

2. New York in 1845 passed a stronger property act, which allowed women to own and control property independently of their husbands. Property acquired after marriage was theirs, and contracts made as a single woman remained valid. As of 1860, 29 states had passed women’s property acts.

II. Civil War Work: Women built on their Reform Experience

A. Sanitary Commissions (North) attracted abolitionist women and pro-union advocates

1. The Washington DC Sanitary Fair raised over $3 million.

2. President Lincoln praised women’s conduct during the war, emphasizing their contributions.

3. Women organized relief efforts through the Women’s Central Association for Relief, centralizing and professionalizing charitable activities, and laying the foundation for the modern Red Cross, as Clara Barton and Mary Livermore exemplified.

B. Nursing Profession

1. The war created opportunities for women in nursing, which was initially male-dominated. Shortages of male nurses led women to receive training through Sanitary Commissions.

2. Women emphasized domestic virtues to defend their roles, but the war proved the value of female nurses who provided essential and arduous care under horrific conditions, such as at Gettysburg.

3. The experience of wartime nursing laid the groundwork for a largely female profession after the war.

4. The work was difficult but transformative, fostering confidence, skills, and a sense of citizenship among women.

C. Northern Women in the South

1. Northern women inspired by abolition and missionary aims headed south to teach, minister, and aid freed Black populations, often bringing racist ideas and racial hierarchies with them.

2. Their efforts faced social criticism for crossing boundaries of propriety, especially as they constructed notions of “white motherhood” over Black communities, sometimes re-establishing forms of slavery.

3. They encountered resistance from Black women and freedmen demanding wages and fair treatment, and engaged in acts of resistance against the remnants of slavery, such as sabotage and rebellion.

III. Confederate Women–Southern Women’s Lives Upended

A. Scale of Change

1. About 80% of men served in the Confederate army, leading to economic upheaval and social disruption.

2. Former plantation mistresses tried to preserve their way of life, although the system was collapsing.

3. Womanhood and social status were challenged by wartime roles, with women performing domestic and labor roles that were previously male domains.

B. Gender Roles in the Confederacy

1. Women responded to wartime needs by sewing, knitting, and organizing support for soldiers. This was often their first involvement beyond kinship.

2. Refugees sought stability and a sense of home amidst chaos.

C. Poor White Southern Women

1. Uprooted and maintaining small farms, they often felt the burden of wartime hardship more acutely.

2. They resented wealthy planter families and protested economic hardship through bread riots and marches in cities like New Orleans.

D. Enslaved and Emancipated Black Women

1. Resistance persisted through acts of rebellion, sabotage, and attempting to support Union efforts by providing supplies or information.

2. Acts of individual defiance included stealing, preventing plantation destruction, and assisting Union soldiers, sometimes risking severe punishment.

3. Many Black women found opportunities for self-emancipation, forming refugee camps that became temporary homes and hubs of resistance, fostering cooperation and mutual aid in pursuit of freedom.

In conclusion, the Civil War profoundly impacted the roles, rights, and perceptions of women in America. From expanding educational and occupational opportunities for women, to their active involvement in war efforts and reconstruction, women demonstrated resilience, agency, and adaptability. The war’s upheaval challenged traditional gender roles but also laid the foundation for subsequent advances such as women’s suffrage and the professionalization of nursing. Black women, enslaved and free, played critical roles in resisting slavery and supporting the Union efforts, shaping the trajectory toward racial equality and civil rights. The changes wrought by the Civil War highlight both the continuity of women’s contributions and the significant transformations that redefined their sphere in American society.

References

• Chiswick, B. R., & Robinson, R. H. (2020). Women at Work in the Pre-Civil War United States: An Analysis of Unreported Family Workers. IZA DP No. 13424.
• Harper, F. E. (1864). Reconstruction Speech. The Liberator.
• Ware, S. (2015). American Women’s History: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
• Plant, R. J., & Regas, C. (2023). Women’s Hardship Petitions to the U.S. Federal Government during the Civil War. Alexander Street Books.
• Hine, D. C. (2004). Black Women and the U.S. Constitution. OAH Magazine of History, 3, 7–13.
• Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review.
• Forten, C. L. G. (1864). Life on the Sea Islands. Atlantic Monthly, 11.
• Faulkner, C. (1999). How Did White Women Aid Former Slaves during and after the Civil War? Binghamton University.
• Shapiro, A., & Pau, M. (2017). After Slavery: Searching for Loved Ones in Wanted Ads. NPR.
• Kimberly Crenshaw. (Not listed above, but foundational for intersectionality.)